2. Research Methods and Abnormal Psychology Chapter 3

3. Basic Components of Research Study (cont.) Internal vs. External Validity Internal validity – Confidence that effects are due to the independent variable External validity – Extent to which the findings are generalizable Ways to Increase Internal Validity by Minimizing Confounds Use of control groups or statistical control Use of random assignment procedures Use of analog models Relation Between Internal and External Validity

4. Types of Research Designs Descriptive designs Involves measurement of independent variables, but not manipulation by experimenter Answers questions about relations among variables Does not allow us to infer causation Examples: case studies and epidemiology Experimental designs Involves manipulation of an independent variable to observe the effect Allows stronger inference about causation Examples: analog studies and randomized trials

5. Descriptive Designs: Case Studies Nature of the Case Study Extensive observation and detailed description of a client Foundation of early historic developments in psychopathology Limitations of the Case Study Lacks scientific rigor and suitable controls Often entails numerous confounds Useful for generating scientific hypotheses, but not testing

6. Descriptive Designs: Epidemiology Study incidence, prevalence, and course of disorders and disease Uses “correlational method” The Nature of Correlation Statistical expression of covariation between two variables No independent variable is manipulated Nature of Correlation and Strength of Association Range from –1.0 to 0 to +1.0 Positive vs. negative correlation Correlation and Its Relation to Causation Problem of directionality “Third variable” problem Correlation does not imply causation

7. Experimental Designs: Analog Studies Experimenter manipulates independent variable to create phenomena analagous to psychological disorder Animal models – depression, aggression May be used to test treatment mechanisms or effects of psychological disorders Advantage: larger potential samples Disadvantage: limited external validity to clinical samples

8. Experimental Designs: Randomized Trials True experiment Participants randomly assigned to experimental or control group Independent variable is present in experimental group, absent in control group Example: treatment outcome studies Other considerations Placebo can control for participant expectancy effects Double-blind design can control for experimenter expectancies

9. Studying Change over Time How does the problem or behavior change over time? Important in prevention and treatment research Cross-sectional designs Assess different groups of age cohorts at one time Advantage: faster Disadvantage: cohort effects limit inference of causes Logitudinal designs Follow one group over time, across different ages Advantage: better inference about causes Disadvantage: cross-generation effects limit generalizability

11. Ethics in Research Sources of Ethical Guidelines Institutional Review Boards APA Ethics Codes Federal Regulations Considerations Informed consent – Historical evolution post WWII Competence – Ability to provide consent Voluntarism – Lack of coercion Full information – Necessary information to make an informed decision Comprehension – Understanding about benefits and risks of participation

12. Anxiety Disorders Chapter 4

14. Nature of Anxiety and Fear Anxiety Future-oriented mood state characterized by marked negative affect Somatic symptoms of tension Apprehension about future danger or misfortune Fear Present-oriented mood state, marked negative affect Immediate fight or flight response to danger or threat Strong avoidance/escapist tendencies Involves abrupt activation of the sympathetic nervous system Anxiety and Fear are Normal Emotional States

15. From Normal to Disordered Anxiety and Fear Characteristics of Anxiety Disorders Psychological disorders – Pervasive and persistent symptoms of anxiety and fear Involve excessive avoidance and escapist tendencies Symptoms and avoidance causes clinically significant distress and impairment

16. The Anxiety Disorders: An Overview Generalized Anxiety Disorder Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia Specific Phobias Social Phobia Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

17. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The “Basic” Anxiety Disorder Overview and Defining Features Excessive uncontrollable anxious apprehension and worry about life events Coupled with strong, persistent anxiety Somatic symptoms differ from panic (e.g., muscle tension, fatigue, irritability) Persists for 6 months or more Facts and Statistics 4% point prevalence Females outnumber males approximately 2:1 Onset is often insidious, beginning in early adulthood Tendency to be anxious runs in families

18. Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia Overview and Defining Features Experience of unexpected panic attack (i.e., a false alarm) Develop anxiety, worry, or fear about having another attack or its implications Agoraphobia – Fear or avoidance of situations/events associated with panic Symptoms and concern about another attack persists for 1 month or more Facts and Statistics 3.5% point prevalence Two thirds with panic disorder are female Onset is often acute, beginning between 25 and 29 years of age

19. The Phenomenology of Panic Attacks What Is a Panic Attack? Abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort Accompanied by several physical symptoms (e.g., breathlessness, chest pain) DSM-IV Subtypes of Panic Attacks Situationally bound (cued) panic – Expected and bound to some situations Unexpected (uncued) panic – Unexpected “out of the blue” without warning Situationally predisposed panic – May or may not occur in some situations Panic Is Analogous to Fear as an Alarm Response

20. Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia Overview and Defining Features Experience of unexpected panic attacks (i.e., a false alarm) Develop anxiety, worry, or fear about having another attack or its implications Agoraphobia – Fear or avoidance of situations/events associated with panic Symptoms and concern about another attack persists for 1 month or more Facts and Statistics 3.5% point prevalence Two thirds with panic disorder are female Onset is often acute, beginning between 25 and 29 years of age

22. Overview and Defining Features Extreme and irrational fear of a specific object or situation Markedly interferes with one's ability to function Recognize fears are unreasonable, but go to great lengths to avoid phobic objects Facts and Statistics About 11% point prevalence for one or more specific phobias Females are again over-represented Phobias run a chronic course, with onset beginning between 15 and 20 years of age Specific Phobias: An Overview

23. Social Phobia: An Overview Overview and Defining Features Extreme and irrational fear/shyness in social and performance situations Markedly interferes with one's ability to function Often avoid social situations or endure them with great distress Generalized subtype – Social phobia across numerous social situations Facts and Statistics About 13% lifetime prevalence Females are slightly more represented than males Onset is usually during adolescence with a peak age of onset at about 15 years

24. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): An Overview Overview and Defining Features Requires exposure to an event resulting in extreme fear, helplessness, or horror Person continues to re-experience the event (e.g., memories, nightmares, flashbacks) Avoidance of cues that remind person of event Emotional numbing and interpersonal problems are common Markedly interferes with one's ability to function PTSD diagnosis cannot be made earlier than 1 month post- trauma Facts and Statistics About 7.8% point prevalence Combat and sexual assault are the most common traumas

25. Overview and Defining Features Obsessions – Intrusive and nonsensical thoughts, images, or urges that one tries to resist or eliminate Compulsions – Thoughts or actions to suppress the thoughts and provide relief Most persons with OCD display multiple obsessions Most persons with OCD present with cleaning and washing or checking rituals Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): An Overview

28. Facts and Statistics About 2.6% lifetime prevalence Most persons with OCD are female OCD tends to be chronic Onset is typically in early adolescence or young adulthood Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Causes and Associated Features