1. FEM3102 Research Methods in Adult Development and Aging

2. THEORIES OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT Table 1 : Theoretical Approaches in Adult Development APPROACH WRITER’S APPROACH FOCUS TOPIC Behavior, social learning Bandura (1969, 1977) Seligman (1972) LearningMotivation Psychoanalysis Freud (1946) Erikson (1964, 1979) PersonalityMotivation Humanistic Maslow (1970) Kohlberg (1973, 1981) Motivation Moral development Intraindividual differences Cattel (1971), Horn (1980) Guilford, Zimmerman & Guildford (1976) Schaie (1977,1978) Intellectual development Personality Attribution Whitbourne (1985) Self-esteem Social psychology Information processing Sternberg (1980) Learning, Memory Dialectic Riegel (1975, 1976) Personality, Life Crisis

3. Behavior, Social Learning Behavior, Social Learning This approach focus on the environment as an indicator of behavior & behavioral changes This approach focus on the environment as an indicator of behavior & behavioral changes Reward and punishment will influence human behaviors. Reward and punishment will influence human behaviors. This approach considered role model which has emotional bond and can influence human behaviors. This approach considered role model which has emotional bond and can influence human behaviors.

4. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Focuses on emotional conflict and unconscious mental process Focuses on emotional conflict and unconscious mental process Emotional conflict is a result of social responsibilities or reality against individual desire Emotional conflict is a result of social responsibilities or reality against individual desire Erikson – expanded psychoanalysis to adulthood  psychosocial crisis in adulthood is intimacy conflict, productivity and integrity Erikson – expanded psychoanalysis to adulthood  psychosocial crisis in adulthood is intimacy conflict, productivity and integrity

5. Humanistic Humanistic Focuses on motivation as the primary difference between human and animal. Focuses on motivation as the primary difference between human and animal. Emphasize on personal growth  self-actualization Emphasize on personal growth  self-actualization Humans will put the highest expectations to get the best outcome Humans will put the highest expectations to get the best outcome

6. Individual differences Individual differences This approach is always used in psychology test for example intelligence test and personality test This approach is always used in psychology test for example intelligence test and personality test Each individual is different Each individual is different Information processing Information processing Can give explanations of older people’s memories and perceptions Can give explanations of older people’s memories and perceptions Human operation = computer Human operation = computer

7. Attribution Attribution Labeling on events that happened in society Labeling on events that happened in society This label can be attribution depending on types of label toward that events This label can be attribution depending on types of label toward that events The individual will behave accordingly to the label of events that been given. The individual will behave accordingly to the label of events that been given.

8. Dialectic Dialectic focuses on changes and emphasizes on resolution and synthesis after individual face conflicting issues focuses on changes and emphasizes on resolution and synthesis after individual face conflicting issues Individual is seen as an active organism  always face incongruent and conflicting situations and therefore increase higher level skills through revolution and synthesis to handle conflict. Individual is seen as an active organism  always face incongruent and conflicting situations and therefore increase higher level skills through revolution and synthesis to handle conflict.

9. Problem situation Leah and Sarah are both 75 years and are in fairly good health. They believe that their memory is not as good as it once was, so they both use various memory aids: Leah tries to think of images in her mind to remember her grocery list, whereas Sarah writes them down. Leah and Sarah got into a discussion recently about which technique works better. Leah and Sarah are both 75 years and are in fairly good health. They believe that their memory is not as good as it once was, so they both use various memory aids: Leah tries to think of images in her mind to remember her grocery list, whereas Sarah writes them down. Leah and Sarah got into a discussion recently about which technique works better.

10. Measuring adult development and aging Three approaches: Three approaches: 1. Observing systematically 2. Using tasks to sample behavior 3. Asking people for self-reports Researchers must also ensure that the participants in the study are representative of the larger group of people in question. Researchers must also ensure that the participants in the study are representative of the larger group of people in question.

11. Concepts in measuring development Reliability Reliability The extent to which it provides a consistent index of the behavior or topic of interest. The extent to which it provides a consistent index of the behavior or topic of interest. Example: a measure of memory is reliable to the extent that it gives a consistent estimate of performance each time you administer it. Example: a measure of memory is reliable to the extent that it gives a consistent estimate of performance each time you administer it.

12. Concepts in measuring development Validity Validity The extent to which it measures what researchers think it measures. The extent to which it measures what researchers think it measures. Example: a measure of memory is valid if it can be shown to actually measure memory (and not vocabulary ability, for example) Example: a measure of memory is valid if it can be shown to actually measure memory (and not vocabulary ability, for example) Often established by showing that the measure is in question is closely related to another measure known to be valid. Often established by showing that the measure is in question is closely related to another measure known to be valid.

13. 1. Systematic Observation Involves watching people and carefully recording what they say or do. Involves watching people and carefully recording what they say or do. Two forms of systematic observation: Two forms of systematic observation: Naturalistic observation Naturalistic observation Structured observation Structured observation

14. Naturalistic observation People are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situations. People are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situations. Example: Leah and Sarah could be observed in the grocery store purchasing their items as a way to test how well they remember. Example: Leah and Sarah could be observed in the grocery store purchasing their items as a way to test how well they remember.

15. Structured observation Researchers create a setting that is particularly likely to elicit the behavior of interest. Researchers create a setting that is particularly likely to elicit the behavior of interest. Especially useful to study behaviors that are difficult to observe naturally. Especially useful to study behaviors that are difficult to observe naturally. Example: Emergency is a rare and an unpredictable event. Therefore, researchers can stage an emergency and observe how people react. Example: Emergency is a rare and an unpredictable event. Therefore, researchers can stage an emergency and observe how people react. However, whether the behaviors in staged situations are the same as in naturally occurring situations is difficult to determine. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize from staged setting to the real world. However, whether the behaviors in staged situations are the same as in naturally occurring situations is difficult to determine. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize from staged setting to the real world.

16. 2. Sampling behavior with tasks When investigators cannot directly observe certain behaviors, they create tasks that allow them to sample the behavior. When investigators cannot directly observe certain behaviors, they create tasks that allow them to sample the behavior. Example: One way to test adults’ memory is to give them a list of items, perhaps a simulated grocery list, to learn and remember. Example: One way to test adults’ memory is to give them a list of items, perhaps a simulated grocery list, to learn and remember. This approach is popular because it is convenient. This approach is popular because it is convenient. However, it has a problem with validity. How do you know what people do in real life situations when the list is actual items they need to purchase. However, it has a problem with validity. How do you know what people do in real life situations when the list is actual items they need to purchase.

17. 3. Self-reports A special case of using tasks to sample people’s behavior. Self- reports are simply people’s answers to questions about topic of interest. A special case of using tasks to sample people’s behavior. Self- reports are simply people’s answers to questions about topic of interest. Written form: Questionnaire Written form: Questionnaire Verbal form: Interview Verbal form: Interview Questions are created to probe different aspects about the topic of interest. Questions are created to probe different aspects about the topic of interest. Example: If you think imagery and lists are common ways people use to remember grocery items, you could devise a questionnaire and survey several people to find out. Example: If you think imagery and lists are common ways people use to remember grocery items, you could devise a questionnaire and survey several people to find out.

18. 3. Self-reports Self-reports are very convenient and provide information on the topic of interest. Self-reports are very convenient and provide information on the topic of interest. However self-report are not always good measure as they can be inaccurate. People may not always remember precisely what they did in the past, or they may report what they think the researcher wants to hear. However self-report are not always good measure as they can be inaccurate. People may not always remember precisely what they did in the past, or they may report what they think the researcher wants to hear.

19. Representative sampling Researchers are normally interested in broad groups of people called populations. Example: FEM students taking FEM3102, the baby boomer generation. Researchers are normally interested in broad groups of people called populations. Example: FEM students taking FEM3102, the baby boomer generation. Almost all studies include only a sample of people, which is a subset of the population. Almost all studies include only a sample of people, which is a subset of the population. Researchers must be careful to ensure that their sample is truly representative of the population of interest. Researchers must be careful to ensure that their sample is truly representative of the population of interest.

20. Representative sampling An unrepresentative sample can result in invalid research. An unrepresentative sample can result in invalid research. Always critically evaluate the sample in a research and how the researchers generalize their findings. Always critically evaluate the sample in a research and how the researchers generalize their findings.

21. General designs for research Primary designs for studying adult development and aging: Primary designs for studying adult development and aging: 1. Experimental studies 2. Correlational studies 3. Case studies

22. 1. Experimental design An experiment involves manipulating a key factor that the researcher believes is responsible for a particular behavior and randomly assigning participants to the experimental and control groups. An experiment involves manipulating a key factor that the researcher believes is responsible for a particular behavior and randomly assigning participants to the experimental and control groups. The researcher is most interested in identifying differences between two groups of people: The researcher is most interested in identifying differences between two groups of people: Experimental group receives the manipulation Experimental group receives the manipulation Control group does not receive manipulation Control group does not receive manipulation

23. The researcher exerts precise control over all important aspects of the study including the variable of interest, the setting and the participants. The researcher exerts precise control over all important aspects of the study including the variable of interest, the setting and the participants. Researchers can infer cause-and-effect relations about variables due to systematic manipulation of key variables. Researchers can infer cause-and-effect relations about variables due to systematic manipulation of key variables. Independent variables: variables manipulated by the experimenter. Independent variables: variables manipulated by the experimenter. Dependent variables: behaviors or outcomes that are measured. Dependent variables: behaviors or outcomes that are measured.

24. Age cannot be an independent variable because we cannot manipulate it. Age is a PERSONAL variable, inherent in the subject like race or gender. Age cannot be an independent variable because we cannot manipulate it. Age is a PERSONAL variable, inherent in the subject like race or gender. Therefore, we cannot conduct true experiments to examine the effects of age on a person’s behavior. At best, we can find age-related effects of an independent variable on dependent variables. Therefore, we cannot conduct true experiments to examine the effects of age on a person’s behavior. At best, we can find age-related effects of an independent variable on dependent variables.

25. Example of experimental study in aging See article (Experimental study.pdf) See article (Experimental study.pdf)

26. 2. Correlational design In a correlational study, investigators examine relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world. In a correlational study, investigators examine relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world. In the simplest correlational study, a researcher measures two variables, then sees how they are related. In the simplest correlational study, a researcher measures two variables, then sees how they are related. The results of a correlational study usually are measured by computing a correlation coefficent (r). The results of a correlational study usually are measured by computing a correlation coefficent (r).

27. Correlations can range from - 1.0 to 1.0, reflecting three different types of relations between the two variables: Correlations can range from - 1.0 to 1.0, reflecting three different types of relations between the two variables: When r = 0, the two variables are unrelated. When r = 0, the two variables are unrelated. When r > 0, the variables are positively related. When r > 0, the variables are positively related. When r < 0, the variables are inversely related. When r < 0, the variables are inversely related. Correlational studies do not imply cause-and-effect relations. Correlational studies do not imply cause-and-effect relations. However they do provide important information about the strength of the relation between variables (reflected in the absolute value of the correlation coefficient). However they do provide important information about the strength of the relation between variables (reflected in the absolute value of the correlation coefficient).

29. Correlational techniques are used a great deal because developmental researchers are interested in how variables are related to factors that are very difficult, if not impossible, to manipulate. Correlational techniques are used a great deal because developmental researchers are interested in how variables are related to factors that are very difficult, if not impossible, to manipulate. Most developmental research is correlational at some level because age cannot be manipulated within an individual. Most developmental research is correlational at some level because age cannot be manipulated within an individual. This means we can describe many developmental phenomena, but we can only explain some of them. This means we can describe many developmental phenomena, but we can only explain some of them.

30. 3. Case study design Used when researchers cannot obtain measures directly from people and are able only to watch them carefully. Used when researchers cannot obtain measures directly from people and are able only to watch them carefully. In certain situations, researchers may be able to study a single individual in great detail in a case study. In certain situations, researchers may be able to study a single individual in great detail in a case study. Case study is especially useful when researchers want to investigate a rare phenomena, such as uncommon diseases or people with extremely high ability. Case study is especially useful when researchers want to investigate a rare phenomena, such as uncommon diseases or people with extremely high ability.

31. Case studies are also useful for opening new areas of study which can be followed by larger studies using other methods (e.g. experiments). Case studies are also useful for opening new areas of study which can be followed by larger studies using other methods (e.g. experiments). The primary limitation of this method is whether the findings from one individual can be generalized to others. The primary limitation of this method is whether the findings from one individual can be generalized to others.

33. Designs for studying development Developmental researchers need to be sensitive of developmental differences in choosing a research design. Developmental researchers need to be sensitive of developmental differences in choosing a research design. Three key variables in developmental research design: Three key variables in developmental research design: Age Age Cohort Cohort Time of measurement Time of measurement

34. Age Age effects reflect differences caused by underlying processes, such as biological, psychological or sociocultural changes. Age effects reflect differences caused by underlying processes, such as biological, psychological or sociocultural changes. Although usually represented by chronological age, age effects are inherent changes within the person and are not caused by the passage of time per se. Although usually represented by chronological age, age effects are inherent changes within the person and are not caused by the passage of time per se.

35. Cohort Cohort effects are differences caused by experiences and circumstances unique to the generation to which one belongs. Cohort effects are differences caused by experiences and circumstances unique to the generation to which one belongs. In general, cohort effects corresponds to the normative history-graded influences. In general, cohort effects corresponds to the normative history-graded influences. However, it is not easy to define a cohort as it can be specific such as in all people born in one particular year or general as in the baby-boom cohort. However, it is not easy to define a cohort as it can be specific such as in all people born in one particular year or general as in the baby-boom cohort.

36. Each generation is exposed to different sets of historical and personal events e.g. World War II, home computers, or opportunities to attend college. Each generation is exposed to different sets of historical and personal events e.g. World War II, home computers, or opportunities to attend college. Cohort effects can have significant implications on research. Cohort effects can have significant implications on research.

37. Time of measurement Time-of-measurement effects reflect differences stemming from sociocultural, environmental, historical or other events at the time data are obtained from the participants. Time-of-measurement effects reflect differences stemming from sociocultural, environmental, historical or other events at the time data are obtained from the participants. The point in time in which a researcher decides to do research could lead him or her to different conclusions about the phenomenon being studied. The point in time in which a researcher decides to do research could lead him or her to different conclusions about the phenomenon being studied. Example: Data about wage increase may be influenced by the economic conditions of that year (economic recession vs. boom) Example: Data about wage increase may be influenced by the economic conditions of that year (economic recession vs. boom)

38. The three building-block variables (age, cohort, and time of measurement) can be represented in a single chart. The three building-block variables (age, cohort, and time of measurement) can be represented in a single chart. Time of Measurement Cohort2000201020202030 195050607080 196040506070 197030405060 198020304050

39. Cohort is represented by the years in the first column. Cohort is represented by the years in the first column. Time of measurement is represented by the years across the top. Time of measurement is represented by the years across the top. Age is represented by the numbers in individual cell. Computed by subtracting the cohort year from the time of measurement. Age is represented by the numbers in individual cell. Computed by subtracting the cohort year from the time of measurement. Confounding is any situation in which one cannot determine which of two or more effects is responsible for the behaviors being observed. Confounding is any situation in which one cannot determine which of two or more effects is responsible for the behaviors being observed.

40. Cross-Sectional Design Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design Longitudinal Design Sequential Design Sequential Design Three types of research design

41. A comparison of people (take a cross-section of a population) varying in some specific variable (age, cohort, gender, race) at a single point in time. subjects are tested only once subjects are tested only once subjects are from different ages & groups subjects are from different ages & groups would tell us about age differences but not change over time would tell us about age differences but not change over time Example: 100 people (1/4 are 20, 1/4 are 30, 1/4 are 40, 1/4 are 50) are given a one time survey about education. Example: 100 people (1/4 are 20, 1/4 are 30, 1/4 are 40, 1/4 are 50) are given a one time survey about education. Cross sectional design

42. Cross-Sectional Diagram ________________________________ Time of Testing COHORT19701980199020001920 _ _ 70 70 1930 _ _ 60 60 1940 _ _ 50 50 1950 _ _ _ _

44. Cross-Sectional Design ______________________________ Advantages Advantages Popular because they are relatively in-expensive, easier to manage & less time time consuming. Popular because they are relatively in-expensive, easier to manage & less time time consuming. Avoid the problems of subject attrition (subjects dropping out of the study) and practice effects (subjects being repeatedly tested) that plague longitudinal studies Avoid the problems of subject attrition (subjects dropping out of the study) and practice effects (subjects being repeatedly tested) that plague longitudinal studies

45. Cross-Sectional Design ______________________________ Disadvantages Disadvantages Drawbacks include the confounding of age and cohort differences—i.e. differences among the groups maybe due to their historical/ environmental events and not because of development process. Drawbacks include the confounding of age and cohort differences—i.e. differences among the groups maybe due to their historical/ environmental events and not because of development process. The results are thus contaminated by generational differences. The results are thus contaminated by generational differences.

46. Follow the same subjects (a single cohort) over time Follow the same subjects (a single cohort) over time Allowing change or consistency to be evaluated within the same group (age change) Allowing change or consistency to be evaluated within the same group (age change) Issues specific to Longitudinal Design: Issues specific to Longitudinal Design: Selective Attrition & Drop-out Selective Attrition & Drop-out Time of Measurement Effect Time of Measurement Effect Longitudinal design

47. Longitudinal Diagram ________________________________ Time of Testing COHORT19701980199020001920 50 50 60 60 70 70 _ 1930 _ _ _ _ 1940 _ _ _ _ 1950 _ _ _ _

49. http://www.biomedcentral.com/ content/figures/1471-2458-7-108-1.jpg

50. Longitudinal Design ______________________________ Advantages Advantages Provide a good picture of individual changes over time and developmental differences among individuals Provide a good picture of individual changes over time and developmental differences among individuals One can look for the long-term effect of earlier events, make predictions and observe outcomes and do retrospective analyses of developmental events to look for patterns One can look for the long-term effect of earlier events, make predictions and observe outcomes and do retrospective analyses of developmental events to look for patterns

51. Longitudinal Design ______________________________ Disadvantages Disadvantages Time consuming & expensive Time consuming & expensive Subject attrition is a significant problem because if too many subjects drop out (due to disinterest, moving away, death and so on) the sample become less and less representative Subject attrition is a significant problem because if too many subjects drop out (due to disinterest, moving away, death and so on) the sample become less and less representative Failure to respond a survey is correlated with severe disability, institutionalization & death Failure to respond a survey is correlated with severe disability, institutionalization & death Lead to bias in findings Lead to bias in findings

52. A combination of Cross-sectional & Longitudinal A combination of Cross-sectional & Longitudinal Five types of Sequential Design: Five types of Sequential Design: Time-lag Time-lag Time-sequential –treat age & time as IV Time-sequential –treat age & time as IV Cohort-sequential –treat age & cohort as IV Cohort-sequential –treat age & cohort as IV Cross-sequential –treat cohort and time as IV Cross-sequential –treat cohort and time as IV Panel studies Panel studies Sequential designs

53. Time-Lag Diagram ________________________________ Time of Testing Time-Lag Diagram ________________________________ Time of Testing COHORT197019801990200020101920 50 50 _ _ _ _ 1930 _ _ _ _ 1940 _ _ _ _ 1950 _ _ _ _ 1960 _ _ _ _

54. Time-Sequential Diagram Time of Testing Time-Sequential Diagram Time of Testing COHORT197019801990200020101920 _ _ 70 70 _ _ 1930 _ _ 60 60 70 70 _ 1940 _ _ 50 50 60 60 70 70 1950 _ _ _ 50 50 60 60 1960 _ _ _ _ 50 50

55. Cohort-Sequential Diagram Time of Testing Cohort-Sequential Diagram Time of Testing COHORT197019801990200020101920 50 50 60 60 70 70 _ _ 1930 _ 50 50 60 60 70 70 _ 1940 _ _ 50 50 60 60 70 70 1950 _ _ ___ 1960 _ _ ___

56. Cross-Sequential Diagram Time of Testing Cross-Sequential Diagram Time of Testing COHORT197019801990200020101920 _ 60 60 70 70 80 80_ 1930 _ 50 50 60 60 70 70_ 1940 _ 40 40 50 50 60 60_ 1950 _ _ ___ 1960 _ _ ___

57. Panel Diagram Time of Testing COHORT197019801990200020101920 _ 60* 60* _ __ 1930 _ 50* 50* 70* 70* __ 1940 _ 40* 40* 60* 60* 80* 80*_ 1950 _ _ 50* 50* 70* 70*_ 1960 _ _ _ 60* 60*_ * Same individuals over time

58. http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/snapshots/familytime.html

59. Sequential Design ____________________________ Advantages Advantages combine some strengths of both the cross sectional and longitudinal approaches, while at the same time attempting to minimize the confounding of age, cohort and time of measurement influences combine some strengths of both the cross sectional and longitudinal approaches, while at the same time attempting to minimize the confounding of age, cohort and time of measurement influences provide greater internal validity than either the traditional single-cohort longitudinal or the single-time- measurement cross-sectional designs provide greater internal validity than either the traditional single-cohort longitudinal or the single-time- measurement cross-sectional designs Represent an important contribution of adult dev. To research in developmental psychological Represent an important contribution of adult dev. To research in developmental psychological

60. Sequential Design ____________________________ Disadvantages Disadvantages Its too expensive and need high commitment Its too expensive and need high commitment The complexity has probably hindered their widespread use to date The complexity has probably hindered their widespread use to date

61. Time-Lag Design ____________________________ Advantages Advantages Provides a picture of the effects of sociohistorical change at a particular point in development Provides a picture of the effects of sociohistorical change at a particular point in development we see how the same age group behaves in different historical periods and contexts we see how the same age group behaves in different historical periods and contexts

62. Time-Lag Design ____________________________ Disadvantages Disadvantages cohort and time-of-measurement influences are confounded cohort and time-of-measurement influences are confounded expensive and time consuming expensive and time consuming Only one age is studied Only one age is studied

63. So, are old people conservative? A cross-sectional study will show whether old people are more conservative than young people. A longitudinal study will show whether people in a specific group become more or less conservative with age. A time-lag design will show whether current old people are more conservative than previous cohorts of old people. A sequential design will show whether or not old people are more conservative than young people at one point in time, over time, and across different cohorts.