1. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 1 Defining Macros in Scheme Extensibility: A language is extensible if the language can be extended. New Scheme control structures can be created using macros. A macro form is evaluated in a special way: First the macro form is expanded by applying the macro-expansion procedure or transformer (given in the definition) to the arguments. Then the resulting expression is evaluated.

2. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 2 Two Styles of Macros in DrScheme “Lispish” macros. Obtained using DEFINE-MACRO, which is now available in a library. They use full Scheme as the language for writing macros, rather than a specialized pattern language. They are more powerful but somewhat more dangerous than hygienic macros. “Hygienic” macros. Obtained with DEFINE-SYNTAX and SYNTAX-RULES. They have built-in help for avoiding “variable-capture” bugs, but they are less powerful.

3. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 3 Using Lispish Macros in DrScheme (require (lib "defmacro.ss")) This makes DEFINE-MACRO available. Works in DrScheme version 201.

4. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 4 Example: NULLIFY > (define x 5) 5 > x 5 > (define-macro (nullify symbol) (list 'set! symbol ''nil) ) > (nullify x) > x NIL

5. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 5 Macro Expansion for NULLIFY By defining the macro NULLIFY, we have actually defined a procedure, but it’s not named NULLIFY. It’s called the macro expansion function or transformer for NULLIFY. When the macro NULLIFY is called, its transformer is applied to the macro argument. And then that result is evaluated. We can see a representation of the intermediate result if we use the procedure MACROEXPAND (to be defined shortly). > (macroexpand '(nullify total)) (SET! TOTAL 'NIL)

6. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 6 Macro Call Evaluation (nullify total) 1. The arguments (unevaluated) are passed to the macro expansion function. SYMBOL gets as its binding the symbol TOTAL. 2. The expansion procedure is applied. Any macro forms within the expansion are themselves expanded. (SET! TOTAL 'NIL) 3. The result of expansion is itself evaluated.

7. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 7 MACROEXPAND in DrScheme (define (macroexpand expr) (syntax-object->datum (expand expr)) ) 1. EXPAND transforms the expression (presumably a macro call) by applying the macro’s transformer. Any macro calls within the expansion are also expanded. An object of type SYNTAX is returned. 2. The syntax object is converted into an S-expression by SYNTAX-OBJECT->DATUM.

8. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 8 Example: IF-N-Z-P > (define-macro (if-n-z-p numexpr negform zeroform posform) (list 'cond (list (list '< (eval numexpr) 0) negform) (list (list '= (eval numexpr) 0) zeroform) (list (list '> (eval numexpr) 0) posform) (list t '(print 'error)) ) )

9. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 9 Macro Expansion: IF-N-Z-P > (macroexpand '(if-n-z-p (* 3 -5) -35 'zero 37)) Produces code approximately equivalent to: (IF (< -15 0) -35 (IF (= -15 0) 'ZERO (IF (> -15 0) 37 (PRINT 'ERROR)))) Note that COND, which is implemented as a macro in GCL, was expanded, too. The macro expansion process for this macro is a little inefficient, because the numerical expression is always evaluated 3 times. We could rewrite the macro to perform the expansion once, save the value in a local variable, and access it three times. But, what should we name the variable? The safe thing to do is use GENSYM to synthesize a unique symbol and use it. (An optional exercise - and fairly tricky).

10. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 10 Example: PUSH > (define-macro (push element stack) (list 'if (list 'null? stack) (list 'set! stack (list 'quote (list element))) (list 'set! stack (list 'cons element stack)) ) )

11. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 11 Macro Expansion for PUSH > (macroexpand '(push 5 s)) (IF (NULL? S) (SET! S '(5)) (SET! S (CONS 5 S)))

12. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 12 Full Macro-form Evaluation First the form is fully expanded, and then the resulting form is evaluated. > (define mystack () ) > (push 5 mystack ) > (push '(next element) mystack ) > mystack ((NEXT ELEMENT) 5)

13. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 13 Example: TWICE Takes any number of forms and evaluates them all once and then all again. > (define-macro (twice. forms) (append '(begin) forms forms) ) > (twice (display "Macros are powerful") (newline) (display "Aren’t they?") (newline) ) Macros are powerful Aren’t they? Macros are powerful Aren’t they?

14. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 14 Example: AVERAGE Takes two numeric arguments and returns the mean. > (define-macro (average num1 num2) (list '/ (list '+ (eval num1) (eval num2)) 2) ) > (macroexpand '(average 2 (* 5 4))) (/ (+ 2 20) 2) or, in DrScheme (uses top-level env’t): (#%app (#%top. /) (#%app (#%top. +) (#%datum. 2) (#%datum. 20)) (#%datum. 2)) > (average 2 (* 5 4)) 11 Arguments to macros are not automatically evaluated, as they are in function calls.

15. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 15 Example: SET-TO-ONE Takes any number of arguments, which must be symbols, and gives each the value 1. > (define-macro (set-to-one. symbols) (append '(begin) (map (lambda (s) (list 'set! s 1)) symbols))) > (macroexpand '(set-to-one x y z)) (BEGIN (SET! X 1) (SET! Y 1) (SET! Z 1)) > (define x 0) > (define y 0) > (define z 0) > (set-to-one x y z) > y 1

16. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 16 Backquote and Comma Syntax Allows the body of a macro to look like the expanded form. > (define-macro (push element stack) ‘(if (null?,stack) (set! ',stack '(,element)) (set!,stack (cons,element,stack)) ) ) >(macroexpand '(push 5 s)) (IF (NULL? S)(SET! 'S '(5))(SET! S (CONS 5 S))) Backquote is like QUOTE but it allows subexpressions preceded by a comma to be evaluated.

17. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 17 Example: ENQUEUE Like PUSH, but puts the new element at the end of the list. > (define-macro (enqueue item lst) ‘(if (null?,lst) (set! ',lst '(,item)) (nconc,lst (list,item)) ) ) > (define q '(a b c)) > (enqueue 'd q) > q (A B C D)

18. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 18 Procedure NCONC Destructively concatenate two lists by creating a pointer from the CDR of the last cons in the first list to the first cons of the second list. > (define (nconc l1 l2) (cond ((null? l1) ()) ((pair? (cdr l1)) (nconc (cdr l1) l2)) (#t (set-cdr! l1 l2)) ) ) > (define lst1 '(a b c)) > (define lst2 ‘(d e f)) > (nconc lst1 lst2) > lst1 (A B C D E F)

19. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 19 Example: SELECT Each clause is a list that begins with a value that might equal that of OBJECT. These value are tested in turn, and the first one that is equal to OBJECT has its remaining clause elements evaluated, and the value of the last of these is returned. > (select 5 (4 "too small") (5 "just right" "five") (6 "six") ) "five"

20. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 20 Example: SELECT Note that the backquote doesn’t have to be at top-level. Also note the use of the dot (.) in the body which means that the list that follows should be spliced into the current list. (define-macro (select object. clauses) (append '(cond) (map (lambda (clause) `((equal? (car ',clause),object).,(cdr clause)) ) clauses)))

21. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 21 Using DEFINE-SYNTAX and SYNTAX-RULES in DrScheme We do not need to use (require (lib "defmacro.ss")) Instead of DEFINE-MACRO we use DEFINE-SYNTAX and SYNTAX-RULES. This creates a hygienic macro and requires that we use a pattern language. Works in DrScheme version 201.

22. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 22 WHEN (define-syntax when (syntax-rules () ((_ condition form...) (if condition (begin form...)) ) ) ) > (define n 2) > (when (= n 2) (display n)(newline)) 2

23. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 23 WHEN … EXCEPT > (define-syntax when (syntax-rules (except) ((_ condition form except c) (if (and condition (not c)) (begin form)) ) ((_ condition form...) (if condition (begin form...)) ) ) ) > (define n 18) > (when (even? n) (display 'not-prime) except (= n 2)) NOT-PRIME > (set! n 2) > (when (even? n) (display 'not-prime) except (= n 2)) (nothing) Note … must occur at the end of a list.

24. CSE 341 -- S. Tanimoto Macros 24 Language Extension A new control structure, such as SELECT, is a good example of extending a language. Most languages allow user-defined functions, which provide a first level of language extension. By providing a coherent set of extensions to Lisp, typically containing both macro and function definitions, you can create an embedded language (EL). If you need a domain-specific language, an EL may be the way to go, because: The EL takes advantage of its host language, Lisp, for its basic syntax, parsing, and for handling lots of generic functionality. Example domains: knowledge representation, automatic theorem proving, text-processing, combinatorics, gene sequence processing.