1. YEARS OF CRISES HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS THE LoN IN THE 1920s – 1930s?

2. PEACEKEEPING 1920-25 - The territorial changes of the Versailles settlement led to crisis in Europe. (page 93) - The League was not able to solve all of them. - However, it seemed there was “a good chance that Europe had found a workable successor to the pre-1914 states system.

4. ATTEMPTS TO STRENGTHEN THE LEAGUE - France initiated two attempts to strengthen the League in 1923 and 1924. - 1923: Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance. All members would come to the assistance of a victim of aggression. - 1924: Geneva Protocol. Arbitration would be compulsory in all disputes. - Britain, its dominions and the Scandinavian powers rejected them. - Thus, the League remained divided between those states that wanted a strong LoN to enforce the existing territorial agreements, and those that wanted to be more selective in dealing with aggression.

5. THE RUHR CRISIS (1923) - The USA did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles and signed a separate treaty with Germany. - The political situation in Germany didn’t seem likely to produce a government keen to comply with the Versailles Treaty. - In October 1921 the Wiesbaden Accords were drawn and France accepted to take a portion of the reparations in raw material and industrial produce. - The following year Germany fell behind with the payments and France was inclined to use force to solve the situation. - This became a crisis when Germany asked for the payments to be suspended for 4 years.

6. - France and Belgium with the support of Italy moved troops into the Ruhr Valley in January 1923. - The German government of Chancellor Wilhelm Cuno protested and instructed the workers to strike but continued to pay the workers (page 95).

7. - France and Belgium with the support of Italy moved troops into the Ruhr Valley in January 1923. - The German government of Chancellor Wilhelm Cuno protested and instructed the workers to strike but continued to pay the workers (page 95). - The printing of money caused hyperinflation while France encouraged the unemployed in France and Belgium to work in the Ruhr industries. - Cuno was replaced by Gustave Stresemann in August 1923. - In 1924 the crisis was ended by the Dawes Plan which decided the following: - Reparations were to be guaranteed by two mortgages, one on the railways and on the industries. - A US “reparation agent” would reside in Germany to supervise repayments. - Repayments were to be reduced.

8. - The crisis threw up serious problems with the integrity of the LoN. - France had taken matters into its own hands and attempted to seize payments by force. - Britain and Sweden had attempted to bring the LoN into the crisis but were blocked by France. - Even though the settlement of the crisis gave gains to France the results of its actions increased the tension between France and Germany.

9. THE RAPALLO TREATY (1922) - In April 1922 Germany and Russia introduced diplomatic relations and future cooperation. - Germany recognized the Soviet government and provided for close economic cooperation. - Germany was allowed to rearm and train secretly in Russia. - This convinced Britain that Germany had to be accepted rather tan alienated. - Germany became even friendlier with Russia.

10. THE LOCARNO PACT (1925) - Although the French retreated from the Ruhr Valley, there were allied troops in other Rhineland cities. - Stresemann didn’t want any occupying forces in Germany nor an independent Rhineland. KELLOG-BRIAND PACTYOUNG PLAN LOCARNO CONFERENCE

11. THE LOCARNO CONFERENCE - In February 1925 in Switzerland, Germany voluntarily agreed to give its claims over Alsace-Lorraine, Malmedy and Eupen which was greatly welcomed by France and Belgium. France in return would not invade again and it wouldn’t encourage Rhineland to be independent. - Germany, Poland and Czechoslovaquia agreed to change borders by arbitration only. - Germany was to be admitted in the LoN. - This gave hope for future security (Locarno Spirit) - The treaties didn’t guarantee Eastern borders, and the border with Italy. - Locarno undermined the Treaty of Versailles and the LoN.

13. THE YOUNG PLAN (1929) - It attempted to redress some of the problems that remained with the Dawes Plan. - Three main objectives: - It further reduced the total sum to be repaid by Germany. - Set a date for completion of repayments (1988) - Continued US involvement in reparation payments. - Also Britain and France agreed to end their occupation of the Rhineland five years earlier tan scheduled. - Keynes wrote in 1926 that the reparation arrangements were “in the hands of the American capitalists”.

14. KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT (1928) - It was initiated by American Secretary of State William Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand. - It renounced “war as an instrument of national policy” - It was seen as an important declaration by government that they would pursue their objectives through peaceful means. - It has been seen as the high point of Locarno spirit era. - It could be argued that there were no big problems in the 1920s because Germany was still recovering from WWI and it was a period or relative economic boom and prosperity which decreased international tensions and encouraged cooperation.