1. Chapter 5 Learning

2. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2 Defining Learning Learning –a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience Fixed action patterns –behaviors that are driven by genetic inheritance and are species-specific

3. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning –a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response Reflexes –automatic stimulus-response connections that are “hardwired” into the brain

4. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4 How Classical Conditioning Works Unconditioned stimulus (US) –a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning Unconditioned response (UR) –an unlearned response that is automatically associated with the unconditioned stimulus

5. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5 How Classical Conditioning Works Conditioned Stimulus (CS) –elicits the conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Response (CR) –the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US association

6. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6 Classical Conditioning Phenomena Generalization –the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response Discrimination –the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others

7. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 Classical Conditioning Phenomena Extinction –the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus Spontaneous recovery –the process by which a conditioned response can appear again after a time delay without further conditioning

8. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8

9. 9 Applications in Human Classical Conditioning Phobias Counterconditioning –a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response of fear by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear

10. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 10 Evaluation of Classical Conditioning Stimulus substitution –CS substitutes for the US Information theory –the key to understanding classical conditioning is the information the organism obtains from the situation –latent learning

11. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11 Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) –a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence

12. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 12 Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect –behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

13. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 13 Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Operant Conditioning –Reinforcement increases the probability of behavior –Positive reinforcement response is followed by a stimulus –Negative reinforcement response either removes a stimulus or involves avoiding the stimulus

14. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14 Operant Conditioning

15. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 15 Operant Conditioning Punishment –a consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur Shaping –rewarding approximations Chaining –technique used to teach a complex sequence of behaviors

16. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 16 Operant Conditioning Primary reinforcement –reinforcers that are innately satisfying Secondary reinforcement –acquires its positive value through experience Partial reinforcement –intermittent reinforcement

17. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 17 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule –reinforcement of a behavior after a set number Variable-ratio schedule –a timetable in which response are rewarded an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis

18. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 18 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-interval schedule –reinforcement of the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed Variable-interval schedule –reinforcement of a response after a variable amount of time has elapsed

19. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 19

20. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 20 Observational Learning Observational learning –learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior Mentor –a role model who acts as an advisor, coach, and confidant

21. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 21 Cognitive Factors in Learning S-O-R model –a model of learning that gives some importance to cognitive factors –S=Stimulus, O=Organism, R=Response Bandura’s cognitive model –self-efficacy the expectation that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

22. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 22 Cognitive Factors in Learning Cognitive maps –an organism’s mental representation of the the structure of physical space Insight learning –a form of problem solving in which an organism develops a sudden understanding of a problem’s solution

23. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 23 Biological Factors in Learning Preparedness –the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not in others Instinctive drift –the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning Taste aversion –the conditioned avoidance of certain substances

24. Copyright © 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 24 Cultural Factors in Learning How does culture affect learning? –Degree to which these learning processes are used –Determines the content of learning