1. Special Education in Science : The Relative Benefits of Constructed vs. Instructed Knowledge Margo Mastropieri Tom Scruggs George Mason University

2. Constructed vs. Instructed Learning Constructed: Learning must be “invented,” “discovered,” or “constructed” by learners (e.g., Piaget, Dewey, Bruner) Instructed: Information can be directly provided to learners to maximize learning efficiency (e.g., Skinner, Watson, Englemann). See also Locke vs. Descartes; Aristotle vs. Plato

3. Effective Instruction Maximized student engagement Direct questioning directly relevant to objectives High rate of responding Step-by-step instruction Frequent monitoring of learner progress toward meeting prespecified objectives (House et al., 1978; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986)

4. Research in Science Education Analyses of curriculum features and learner characteristics Mnemonic strategies Text-processing strategies “Hands-on” approaches Higher level questioning Inquiry learning Classwide wide peer tutoring

5. Approaches to Science Constructivist: concrete experiences, depth of learning, performance assessment Content-driven: efficient and direct, vocabulary and factual learning, independent text study.

6. Mnemonic Instruction: The Keyword Method Ranidae  family of common frogs Ranidae  “rain” Picture  frog in the rain Learner: ranidae  rain  frog in the rain  frog

7. Effectiveness of Mnemonic Instruction in Science (13 experiments, N = 525)

8. Text Structure Analysis Main idea: Central concept with supporting statements (convection) List: Number of examples of a phenomenon (arthropods) Order: Number of elements in a fixed order (planets, geologic periods)

9. Effects of Text Structure Analysis

10. Science Learning and Mental Retardation Attention Semantic memory Logical reasoning Outerdirectedness

11. Hands-on vs. Textbook: Self Contained Classes

12. Enthusiastic Science Teaching

13. Activities versus Text-based Science Ecosystem Unit 4 th grade classes Textbook adopted by district STC Ecosystems unit Inclusive classes with adaptations

14. Textbook vs Activities Science

16. Coached Elaborations: Provided Explanation Condition E: The anteater has long claws on its front feet, to help it dig for ants. What does the anteater have? S: Long claws on its front feet. E: The anteater has long claws on its front feet. Good. And why does it have this? S: To help it dig for ants. E: To help it dig for ants. Good.

17. Coached Elaborations: Coached Elaboration Condition E: The anteater has long claws on its front feet. Why does it make sense that the anteater has long claws on its front feet? S: I don't know. E: Well, let's think. What does the anteater eat? S: Ants? E: Ants, good. And where do ants live? S: In holes in the ground. E: In holes in the ground. So why does it make sense that the anteater has long claws on its front feet? S: Oh. To help it dig for ants. E: To help it dig for ants. Good.

18. Results (Sullivan, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1993)

19. “Discovery” Learning via Inductive Reasoning “Looking at these examples of pendulums, can you think of a general rule about pendulum motion?” “Considering these examples of floating and sinking, can you think of a general rule about buoyancy?”

20. “Discovery” Learning: Conclusions Students with MR are much slower to draw an appropriate inductive inference from observed scientific phenomena. Students with LD perform more similarly to normally-achieving students. Students with LD and MR are each less likely to transfer what they have learned to new circumstances. Deductive thinking activities may be more effective in some cases.

21. Variables Associated with Inclusive Science Education 1. Open, accepting environment. 2. Administrative support. 3. General effective teaching skills. 4. Special education support. 5. Peer mediation. 6. Appropriate curriculum. 7. Disability-specific teaching skills.

22. Chemistry 10 th Grade Chemistry Study Students with and without disabilities in inclusive classes Peer Tutoring Format involving Strategies including mnemonics, elaborations What else is important? Applications

23. Chemistry Test Results

24. Conclusions Teacher effectiveness variables may be most important overall. Tasks relying on learner insight may be problematic. Students with disabilities benefit from hands-on science curriculum. Peer mediation is helpful. Mnemonic strategies and text processing are useful in promoting recall of verbal material. Students enjoy hands-on science. Constructed Instructed √ √