1. The Self in a Social World

2. The Nature of the Self William James: –composed of one’s thoughts and beliefs about oneself = “known” or “me”. –the self is also the active processor of information = “knower” or the “I”

3. The Self 3 LO1

4. The Content of the Self Self-Schema: beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self- relevant information, they are elements of the self-concept

5. Gender Differences in Defining the Self Women = more relational interdependence Adair et al., (1998): –sentence completion test –women more relational in individualist cultures –in collectivist cultures women and men were equally likely to hold a relational view

6. Development of the Social Self

7. Introspection The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives. Csikszenthmihalyi & Figurski (1983) found that only 8% of thoughts are about the self

8. Social Comparison Theory We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people. We compare ourselves with others who are similar on important attributes or dimensions  We compare ourselves to others when there is no objective standard.  Downward vs. Upward social comparisons

9. How Violations of Personal Standards Influence How we Feel Discrepancies between our ideal and ought selves are especially likely to produce negative emotion People cope by strivings to minimize the gap between the actual and ideal self

10. How Do We Maintain A Positive Self-concept? Sanitiosi & Wlodarski (2004): participants were first led to believe that either extroversion or introversion was a good predictor of success in university and in the workplace Participants then received feedback about their own personalities Those who thought that extroversion was a positive trait remembered the feedback related to extraversion more accurately

11. How Do We Maintain A Positive Self-concept? People also maintain positive self concepts by seeing themselves as more likely than other people to experience good events and as less likely than other people to experience bad events.

12. How Do We Maintain A Positive Self-concept? Use self-handicapping –people create obstacles to success so that potential failure can be blamed on these external factors as opposed to internal traits

13. Downside of Overly Positve Self- Views People who hold overly positive views of themselves can behave more aggressively toward others and see them in a more negative light Poor social skills Destructive behaviour.

14. Self-Evaluation Self-enhancement = unrealistically positive views Makes us feel better about ourselves

15. Self-Evaluation Self-effacement = negative view of oneself Kwok (1995) found grade 4 students in Hong Kong rated themselves lower in –scholastic competence, –athletic competence, –physical appearance, –overall self-worth

16. Cultural Differences in Defining the Self

17. North American/Western Cultures Independent Selves Self-schema in which others are not represented as part of the self Context Independent Attend to focal object and not gestalt Analytic Reasoning Emphasis is on the proper use of rules and that contradictory statements cannot be true Internal Attributions Assume behavior of others correspond to their traits Self motherfather friendsibling

18. Eastern Cultures Interdependent Selves Self-schema in which others are represented as part of the self. Context Dependent Attend to surroundings and gestalt Holistic Reasoning Emphasis is on considering all possible influences and balancing competing forces External Attributions Assume behavior of others correspond to the situation more than people from a Western culture Self mother father friendsibling

19. 19 Self-Concept: Independent or interdependent Independentinterdependent Identity isPersonal, defined by individual traits and goals Social, defined by connections with others What Matters Me—personal achievement and fulfillment; my rights and liberties We—group goals and solidarity; our social responsibilities and relationships Disapproves of ConformityEgotism Illustrative motto “To thine own self be true” “No one is an island” Cultures that support Individualistic WesternCollectivistic Asian and developing world

20. Individualism vs Collectivism Individualists interacting with collectivists : A.Attend to the other's group memberships and authorities B.Recognize that the person is more comfortable in vertical than in horizontal relationships. Persuade by getting the other's superiors to show approval and by demonstrating how a new behaviour will benefit the other's ingroups. C.Criticize sparingly. Emphasize harmony and cooperation.. D.Expect extraordinary and unjustified modesty, particularly if the person is from east Asia. Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)

21. Individualism vs Collectivism E.Cultivate long-term relationships. F.Expect that initially, at least, social behaviour will be formal. It will be polite, correct, but not especially friendly. G.Remember that your social position based on age, sex, and family name is more important than what you have accomplished. H.Expect the person to spend a great deal of time with you, even accompanying you to such places as the doctor's office.. Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)

22. Individualism vs Collectivism Collectivists interacting with individualists include the following: A.Attend more to the other person's personal beliefs and principles than to his or her ingroups. B.Expect the other to be more involved in horizontal and less involved in vertical relationships. C.Expect relationships to be superficial, short-termed, but good- natured. Do not confuse friendliness with intimacy. D.Do not be threatened if the other acts competitively. Recognize that the other person defines status more in terms of accomplishment than in terms of sex, age, or family name. Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)

23. Individualism vs Collectivism E.Expect that you can do business soon after you meet. Time is money and getting down to business is important. F.Pay attention to contracts, signatures, to the written word. Informal agreements mean much less than in your own culture. G.Recognize that the principle of equity is likely to be followed even when you would favor distributing rewards equally or on the basis of need. H.Do not expect to be accompanied or assisted all the time. By letting you go alone they are expressing confidence in you. Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)