1. Operating Systems CMPSC 473 I/O Management (3) December 07, 2010 - Lecture 24 Instructor: Bhuvan Urgaonkar

2. 2 Flash Solid State Drive (SSD) Controller (FTL) Controller (FTL) RAM Flash Memory File System Read SectorsWrite Sectors Block Interface

3. 3 Basics of NAND Flash Memory Three operations: read, write, erase Reads and writes are done at the granularity of a page (2KB or 4KB) Erases are done at the granularity of a block –Block: A collection of physically contiguous pages (64 or 128) –Block erase is the slowest operation requiring about 2ms Writes can only be done on erased pages Page Block Page DataOOB Block …… Page DataOOB Block …… NAND Flash Page Data OOB …… Page Data OOB …… Page

4. 4 Over-writes on the same location (page) are expensive Updates are written to a free page OOB area –Keeps valid/free/invalid status –Stores LPN, used to reconstruct mapping table upon power failure (0, 0) Out-of-Place Updates Block 0 Flash Mapping Table A LPNPPN (PBN, Offset) B(0, 1) C(0, 2) (0, 3) A Update Free LPN=A, V LPN=B, V LPN=C, V DataOOB InvalidLPN=A, V

5. 5 Reclaims invalid pages Typically, called when free space falls below a threshold Victim block selection –Small # valid pages (reduce copying overhead) –Small # overall erases (wear level) Garbage Collection

6. 6 Flash Translation Layer (FTL) Flash Translation Layer –Emulates a normal block device interface –Hides the presence of erase operation/erase-before-write –Address translation, garbage collection, and wear-leveling Address Translation –Mapping table present in small RAM within the flash device

7. Latencies compared

8. Cost Main memory is much more expensive than disk storage The cost per megabyte of hard disk storage is competitive with magnetic tape if only one tape is used per drive. The cheapest tape drives and the cheapest disk drives have had about the same storage capacity over the years. Tertiary storage gives a cost savings only when the number of cartridges is considerably larger than the number of drives.

9. Memory, Disk Price Trends Compared

10. LatencyRelative Cost/GB Lifetime DRAM55 ns (word)30-4010^16 reads/writes NAND Flash SSD 40-50 us (read, page) 200-250 us (write, page) 2 ms (erase, block) 10-20100K-1M erases/block Magnetic disk5 ms (seek time)1MTTF=1 Mhr

11. CPU/Memory Sub-system

12. Disk Scheduling Ordering of requests issued to disk –In OS: Device driver: order requests sent to controller –In controller: order requests executed by disk arm Typical goal: Minimize seek time (our focus) –Seek time dependent on seek distance More advanced –Incorporate rotational latency as well –Incorporate notions of fairness

13. Disk Scheduling (Cont.) Several algorithms exist to schedule servicing of disk I/O requests. We illustrate them with a request queue (0-199). 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67 Head pointer 53

14. FCFS Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders.

15. SSTF Selects the request with the minimum seek time from the current head position. SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may cause starvation of some requests. Illustration shows total head movement of 236 cylinders.

16. SSTF (Cont.)

17. SCAN The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end, servicing requests until it gets to the other end of the disk, where the head movement is reversed and servicing continues. Sometimes called the elevator algorithm. Illustration shows total head movement of 208 cylinders.

18. SCAN (Cont.)

19. C-SCAN Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN. The head moves from one end of the disk to the other. servicing requests as it goes. When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip. Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the last cylinder to the first one.

20. C-SCAN (Cont.)

21. C-LOOK Version of C-SCAN Arm only goes as far as the last request in each direction, then reverses direction immediately, without first going all the way to the end of the disk.

22. C-LOOK (Cont.)

23. File-System Structure File structure –Logical storage unit –Collection of related information File system resides on secondary storage (disks) File system organized into layers File control block – storage structure consisting of information about a file

24. Layered File System

25. A Typical File Control Block

26. In-Memory FS Structures Opening a file Reading a file

27. File-System Structure File structure –Logical storage unit –Collection of related information File system resides on secondary storage (disks) File system organized into layers File control block – storage structure consisting of information about a file

28. Virtual File Systems Virtual File Systems (VFS) provide an object- oriented way of implementing file systems. VFS allows the same system call interface (the API) to be used for different types of file systems. The API is to the VFS interface, rather than any specific type of file system.

29. Schematic View of Virtual File System

30. Directory Implementation Linear list of file names with pointer to the data blocks. –simple to program –time-consuming to execute Hash Table – linear list with hash data structure. –decreases directory search time –collisions – situations where two file names hash to the same location –fixed size

31. Allocation Methods An allocation method refers to how disk blocks are allocated for files: Contiguous allocation Linked allocation Indexed allocation

32. Contiguous Allocation Each file occupies a set of contiguous blocks on the disk Simple – only starting location (block #) and length (number of blocks) are required Wasteful of space (dynamic storage-allocation problem) Files cannot grow

33. Contiguous Allocation of Disk Space

34. Linked Allocation Each file is a linked list of disk blocks: blocks may be scattered anywhere on the disk. pointer block =

35. Linked Allocation (Cont.) Simple – need only starting address Free-space management system – no waste of space Mapping Block to be accessed is the Qth block in the linked chain of blocks representing the file. Displacement into block = R + 4 File-allocation table (FAT) – disk-space allocation used by MS-DOS and OS/2. LA/508 Q R

36. Linked Allocation

37. File-Allocation Table

38. Indexed Allocation Brings all pointers together into the index block. Logical view: index table

39. Example of Indexed Allocation

40. Indexed Allocation (Cont.) Need index table Random access Dynamic access without external fragmentation, but have overhead of index block. Mapping from logical to physical in a file of maximum size of 256K words and block size of 512 words. We need only 1 block for index table. LA/512 Q R Q = displacement into index table R = displacement into block

41. Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.) Mapping from logical to physical in a file of unbounded length (block size of 512 words). Linked scheme – Link blocks of index table (no limit on size). LA / (512 x 508) Q1Q1 R1R1 Q 1 = block of index table R 1 is used as follows: R 1 / 512 Q2Q2 R2R2 Q 2 = displacement into block of index table R 2 displacement into block of file:

42. Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.) Two-level index (maximum file size is 512 3 ) LA / (512 x 512) Q1Q1 R1R1 Q 1 = displacement into outer-index R 1 is used as follows: R 1 / 512 Q2Q2 R2R2 Q 2 = displacement into block of index table R 2 displacement into block of file

43. Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.)  outer-index index table file

44. Combined Scheme: UNIX (4K bytes per block)

45. Free-Space Management Bit vector (n blocks) … 012n-1 bit[i] =  0  block[i] free 1  block[i] occupied Block number calculation (number of bits per word) * (number of 0-value words) + offset of first 1 bit

46. Free-Space Management (Cont.) Bit map requires extra space –Example: block size = 2 12 bytes disk size = 2 30 bytes (1 gigabyte) n = 2 30 /2 12 = 2 18 bits (or 32K bytes) Easy to get contiguous files Linked list (free list) –Cannot get contiguous space easily –No waste of space

47. Linked Free Space List on Disk

48. Efficiency and Performance Efficiency dependent on: –disk allocation and directory algorithms –types of data kept in file’s directory entry Performance –disk cache – separate section of main memory for frequently used blocks –free-behind and read-ahead – techniques to optimize sequential access –improve PC performance by dedicating section of memory as virtual disk, or RAM disk

49. Page Cache A page cache caches pages rather than disk blocks using virtual memory techniques Memory-mapped I/O uses a page cache Routine I/O through the file system uses the buffer (disk) cache This leads to the following figure

50. I/O W/O a Unified Buffer Cache

51. Unified Buffer Cache A unified buffer cache uses the same page cache to cache both memory-mapped pages and ordinary file system I/O

52. I/O Using a Unified Buffer Cache