1. Development and Fertility How are they related among countries? within countries?

2. WOMEN, development, and fertility When women are of higher status, is there more rapid fertility decline? And does it depend on the overall level of development?

3. Fertility, development, and women Does fertility decline lead to improved status of women? And does change depend on the level of development?

4. Development and Fertility Does the level of development matter for fertility decline? Do those countries that are better off economically have lower fertility? Do those countries with better education of women have lower fertility?

5. Development and Fertility Does the level of development matter for fertility decline? The answer is unequivocal: YES Using individual measures such as per capita income, average education, health care, life expectancy, in each case, the higher the level of development, the lower the fertility

6. Economics and Fertility The Easterlin framework of supply and demand for children is often used to explain why countries that are better off have fewer children People demand fewer children because they want to use their money for alternative purposes and/or they want fewer children because they invest more in each of them

7. Development and Fertility Change Does fertility change more rapidly when there is a higher level of development in the country? We can ask this question both across countries and within a country This question was asked by Mauldin and Ross

8. They asked about program effort Policy and stage-setting activities Service and service-related activities Record keeping and evaluation Availability and accessibility of fertility- control supplies and services

9. Percentage TFR decline 1975-90

10. They also examined social setting Adult literacy Primary and secondary school enrollment Life expectancy Infant mortality rate % male labor force not in agriculture GNP per capita % urban population

11. Percentage TFR decline 1975-90

12. Women’s education and fertility There is a strong relationship across countries As female literacy goes up, the total fertility rate goes down As female enrollment goes up, the total fertility rate goes down

13. Women’s education and other indicators As women’s education goes up, age at marriage goes up As women’s education goes up, infant mortality goes down

14. Within country relationships The inverse relationship between education and fertility takes different forms within countries In some, there is a continuous decline in fertility with years of education In others, a reversed U or reversed J-shaped relationship is found -- women with some education have higher fertility than those with none or very little

15. Threshhold effects In some countries, there is what has been described as a “7” relationship In these cases, there seems to be no change in fertility until a certain level of education - - and then a declining relationship is seen

16. Fertility increasing with education In a very few countries, a positive relationship between education and fertility is seen This type of relationship was what was predicted by early economic theory, which was based on the notion that those who were better off would “buy” more children

17. The education pattern varies with level of development The more developed the country, the more likely is there to be a strong inverse relationship between education and fertility The less the gender difference in education, the more likely is there to be a strong inverse relationship between education and fertility In the best off countries, differences by education diminish

18. Does education increase women’s autonomy? We first need to define autonomy Jejeebhoy breaks autonomy into: Knowledge autonomy Decision-making autonomy Physical autonomy - mobility Emotional autonomy - nuclear vs extended family loyalties Economic and social autonomy

19. Better educated women have more autonomy This relationship is found in many settings But there is a relationship to overall context and level of development

20. Evidence of greater autonomy Closer ties to husband and children - loyalty shifts from extended family Greater participation in decision making within the home Greater physical autonomy Greater self-reliance

21. But is education the only determinant of autonomy or empowerment? Other factors to consider include age, marital status, economic situation