1. Main Idea: There are many parts in the human brain that work together to coordinate movement and stimulate thinking and emotions.

2. The Brain Techniques to Study the Brain A brain lesion experimentally destroys brain tissue to study animal behaviors after such destruction. Remember, the hippocampus was removed from rats at various times after learning a maze. Hubel (1990)

3. Clinical Observation Clinical observations have shed light on a number of brain disorders. Alterations in brain morphology due to neurological and psychiatric diseases are now being catalogued. Tom Landers/ Boston Globe

4. Studying the Living Human Brain Animal studies and clinical observations are useful, but often, such as when we need to diagnose or treat illness, we want to know what is happening inside the brain of a living human. For this we have: EEG: Electroencephalogram MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging PET Scan: Positron emission tomography CT Scan (or CAT Scan): Computerized Tomography

5. Electroencephalogram (EEG) An amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. AJ Photo/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

6. MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissue. Both photos from Daniel Weinberger, M.D., CBDB, NIMH James Salzano/ Salzano PhotoLucy Reading/ Lucy Illustrations Top images show ventricular enlargement in a schizophrenic patient. Bottom image shows brain regions when a participants lies.

7. PET Scan: Positron Emission Tomography PET Scan is a visual display of brain activity Detects gamma rays emitted by a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task. Courtesy of National Brookhaven National Laboratories

8. CT Scan: Computerized Tomography X-ray rotates around head. May be done with or without contrasting dye. Images taken from different angles are assembled into 3-D image CT scan produces much more detailed image than x-ray of bone and soft tissue

9. The Brain

10. Brain stemCerebellum Cerebrum

12. Cerebellum

13. Brain Stem

14. The Brain Stem: Older Brain Structures The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic survival functions.

16. Brainstem

17. Thalamus The Thalamus [THAL-uh- muss] is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. To medulla To cerebellum 1. 2. 3. 4.

18. Pons The Pons plays a role in muscle coordination. Pons

19. Reticular Formation Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. Damage to this causes a disorder called narcolepsy in which a person falls asleep suddenly during the daytime and cannot resist the sleep.

20. Medulla The Medulla [muh- DUL-uh] is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

21. The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. Implicit (procedural) memory. Cerebellum

22. The Limbic System is a doughnut- shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum Associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. The Limbic System

23. Amygdala The Amygdala [ah-MIG- dah-la] consists of two lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.

24. Hypothalamus Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. Directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It stimulates or inhibits pituitary gland  other endocrine glands

25. Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the reward (hypothalamus) center (top picture). When the limbic system is manipulated, a rat will navigate fields or climb up a tree (bottom picture). Reward Center Sanjiv Talwar, SUNY Downstate

26. The Cerebral Cortex The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.

28. Structure of the Cortex Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes

29. Functions of the Cortex The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements. The Sensory Cortex (parietal cortex) receives information from skin surface and sense organs.

31. Visual Function

32. Notice the visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe. The functional MRI scan shows the visual cortex is active as the subject looks at faces. Courtesy of V.P. Clark, K. Keill, J. Ma. Maisog, S. Courtney, L.G. Ungerleider, and J.V. Haxby, National Institute of Mental Health

33. Auditory Function The auditory cortex contains distinct subregions that are important for decoding complex sound. Auditory cortex is in the temporal lobe.

34. 2. information travels through the brainstem and midbrain to the auditory cortex. 3. information from the auditory cortex interacts with many other brain areas, especially the frontal lobe, for memory formation and interpretation. 4. The frontal lobe is involved in emotional evaluation. 5. The motor cortex is involved in sensory–motor feedback, in controlling movements needed to produce music using an instrument. 1. Sound waves enter ear, and are turned into neural impulses by the inner ear 1 2 3 4 5

35. Auditory Hallucinations The functional MRI scan shows the auditory cortex is active in patients who hallucinate.

36. More intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or association areas of the cortex. Association Areas

37. Language Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impaired understanding).

38. Specialization & Integration Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words

39. The brain is sculpted by our genes but also by our experiences. Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some types of injury or illness. The Brain’s Plasticity

40. Our Divided Brain Our brain is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere processes reading, writing, speaking, mathematics, and comprehension skills. In the 1960s, it was termed as the dominant brain.

44. Splitting the Brain A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them. Corpus Callosum Martin M. Rother Courtesy of Terence Williams, University of Iowa

45. Split Brain Patients With the corpus callosum severed, objects (apple) presented in the right visual field can be named. Objects (pencil) in the left visual field cannot.

46. Try This! Try drawing one shape with your left hand and one with your right hand, simultaneously. BBC