1. Chapter 4 Network Layer Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach 6 th edition Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley March 2012 A note on the use of these ppt slides: We’re making these slides freely available to all (faculty, students, readers). They’re in PowerPoint form so you see the animations; and can add, modify, and delete slides (including this one) and slide content to suit your needs. They obviously represent a lot of work on our part. In return for use, we only ask the following:  If you use these slides (e.g., in a class) that you mention their source (after all, we’d like people to use our book!)  If you post any slides on a www site, that you note that they are adapted from (or perhaps identical to) our slides, and note our copyright of this material. Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR All material copyright 1996-2012 J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved Network Layer 4-1

2. Network Layer 4-2 4.1 introduction 4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks 4.3 what’s inside a router Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation Chapter 4: outline

3. Network Layer 4-3 Network layer  transport segment from sending to receiving host  on sending side encapsulates segments into datagrams  on receiving side, delivers segments to transport layer  network layer protocols in every host, router  router examines header fields in all IP datagrams passing through it application transport network data link physical application transport network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical network data link physical

4. Network Layer 4-4 Two key network-layer functions  forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate router output  routing: determine route taken by packets from source to dest.  routing algorithms analogy:  routing: process of planning trip from source to dest  forwarding: process of getting through single interchange

5. Network Layer 4-5 1 2 3 0111 value in arriving packet’s header routing algorithm local forwarding table header value output link 0100 0101 0111 1001 32213221 Interplay between routing and forwarding routing algorithm determines end-end-path through network forwarding table determines local forwarding at this router

6. Network Layer 4-6 Connection setup  3 rd important function in some network architectures:  ATM, frame relay, X.25  before datagrams flow, two end hosts and intervening routers establish virtual connection  routers get involved  network vs transport layer connection service:  network: between two hosts (may also involve intervening routers in case of VCs)  transport: between two processes

7. Network Layer 4-7 4.1 introduction 4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks 4.3 what’s inside a router 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol  datagram format  IPv4 addressing  ICMP  IPv6 4.5 routing algorithms  link state  distance vector  hierarchical routing 4.6 routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF  BGP 4.7 broadcast and multicast routing Chapter 4: outline

8. Network Layer 4-8 Connection, connection-less service  datagram network provides network-layer connectionless service  virtual-circuit(vc) network provides network-layer connection service  analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented / connectionless transport-layer services, but:  service: host-to-host  no choice: network provides one or the other  implementation: in network core

9. Network Layer 4-9 Virtual circuits  call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow  each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host address)  every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for each passing connection  link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable service) “source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone circuit”  performance-wise  network actions along source-to-dest path

10. Network Layer 4-10 VC implementation a VC consists of: 1.path from source to destination 2.VC numbers, one number for each link along path 3.entries in forwarding tables in routers along path  packet belonging to VC carries VC number (rather than dest address)  VC number can be changed on each link.  new VC number comes from forwarding table

11. Network Layer 4-11 VC forwarding table 12 22 32 1 2 3 VC number interface number Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC # 1 12 3 22 2 63 1 18 3 7 2 17 1 97 3 87 … … forwarding table in northwest router: VC routers maintain connection state information!

12. Network Layer 4-12 Virtual circuits: signaling protocols  used to setup, maintain teardown VC  used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25  not used in today’s Internet

13. Network Layer 4-13 Datagram networks  no call setup at network layer  routers: no state about end-to-end connections  no network-level concept of “connection”  packets forwarded using destination host address 1. send datagrams application transport network data link physical application transport network data link physical 2. receive datagrams

14. Network Layer 4-14 1 2 3 Datagram forwarding table IP destination address in arriving packet’s header routing algorithm local forwarding table dest address output link address-range 1 address-range 2 address-range 3 address-range 4 32213221 4 billion IP addresses, so rather than list individual destination address list range of addresses (aggregate table entries)

15. Network Layer 4-15 Destination Address Range 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 through 11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111 11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000 through 11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111 11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000 through 11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111 otherwise Link Interface 0 1 2 3 Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely? Datagram forwarding table

16. Network Layer 4-16 Longest prefix matching Destination Address Range 11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* otherwise DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 examples: DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface? when looking for forwarding table entry for given destination address, use longest address prefix that matches destination address. longest prefix matching Link interface 0 1 2 3

17. Longest prefix matching - Exercise 1 Consider a datagram network using 32-bit host addresses. Suppose a router has four links, numbered 0 through 3, and packets are to be forwarded to the link interfaces as follows: Destination Address RangeLink Interface 11100000 00000000 00000000 00000000 through 11100000 00111111 11111111 11111111 0 11100000 01000000 00000000 00000000 through 11100000 01000000 11111111 11111111 1 11100000 01000001 00000000 00000000 through 11100001 01111111 11111111 11111111 2 otherwise3 a) Provide a forwarding table that has five entries, uses longest prefix matching, and forwards packets to the correct link interfaces. b) Describe how your forwarding table determines the appropriate link interface for datagrams with destination addresses:11001000 10010001 01010001 01010101 11100001 01000000 11000011 00111100 11100001 10000000 00010001 01110111

18. Longest prefix matching - Exercise 2 Consider a datagram network using 8-bit host addresses. Suppose a router uses longest prefix matching and has the following forwarding table: For each of the four interfaces, give the associated range of destination host addresses and the number of addresses in the range.

19. Longest prefix matching - Exercise 3 Consider a datagram network using 8-bit host addresses. Suppose a router uses longest prefix matching and has the following forwarding table: For each of the four interfaces, give the associated range of destination host addresses and the number of addresses in the range.

20. Network Layer 4-20 4.1 introduction 4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks 4.3 what’s inside a router 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol  datagram format  IPv4 addressing  ICMP  IPv6 4.5 routing algorithms  link state  distance vector  hierarchical routing 4.6 routing in the Internet  RIP  OSPF  BGP 4.7 broadcast and multicast routing Chapter 4: outline

21. Network Layer 4-21 Router architecture overview two key router functions:  run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)  forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link high-seed switching fabric routing processor router input ports router output ports forwarding data plane (hardware) routing, management control plane (software) forwarding tables computed, pushed to input ports

22. Network Layer 4-22 line termination Data link processing (protocol, decapsulation) lookup, forwarding queueing Input port functions decentralized switching:  given datagram dest., lookup output port using forwarding table in input port memory  goal: complete input port processing at ‘line speed’  queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than forwarding rate into switch fabric physical layer: bit-level reception data link layer: e.g., Ethernet see chapter 5 switch fabric

23. Network Layer 4-23 Switching fabrics  Switching fabric transfer packet from input buffer/port to appropriate output buffer/port.  switching rate: rate at which packets can be transferred from inputs to outputs  often measured as multiple of input/output line rate  N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable  Three types of switching fabrics memory bus crossbar

24. Network Layer 4-24 Switching via memory: first generation routers  traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU  packet copied to system’s memory  CPU extracts dest address from packet’s header, looks up output port in forwarding table, copies to output port  speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)  one packet at a time input port (e.g., Ethernet) memory output port (e.g., Ethernet) system bus

25. Network Layer 4-25 Switching via a bus  An input port transfers a packet directly to the output port over a shared bus, without intervention by the routing processor.  bus contention: switching speed limited by bus bandwidth.  one packet a time  switching via a bus is often sufficient for routers that operate in small local area and enterprise networks.  The Cisco 5600 [Cisco Switches 2012] switches packets over a 32 Gbps backplane bus.

26. Network Layer 4-26 Switching via interconnection network  forwards multiple packets in parallel  A crossbar switch is an interconnection network consisting of 2N buses that connect N input ports to N output ports.  When packet from port A needs to forwarded to port Y, controller closes cross point at intersection of two buses  If two packets from two different input ports are destined to the same output port, then one will have to wait at the input, since only one packet can be sent over any given bus at a time.  More sophisticated interconnection networks use multiple stages of switching elements

27. Network Layer 4-27 Output ports  buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the transmission rate  scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission

28. Network Layer 4-28 Output port queueing  suppose R switch is N times faster than R line  still have output buffering when multiple inputs send to same output  queueing (wait) and loss due to output port buffer overflow! at t, packets more from input to output one packet time later switch fabric switch fabric

29. Network Layer 4-29 How much buffering?  RFC 3439 rule of thumb for buffer sizing was that the amount of buffering (B) should be equal to an average round-trip time (RTT, say 250 msec) times the link capacity (C). Thus, a 10 Gbps link with an RTT of 250 msec would need an amount of buffering equal to B = RTT · C = 2.5 Gbits of buffers.  recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering equal to RTT C. N

30. Network Layer 4-30 Input port queuing  fabric slower than input ports combined queuing may occur at input queues  queuing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!  Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front of queue prevents others in queue from moving forward output port contention: only one red datagram can be transferred. lower red packet is blocked switch fabric one packet time later: green packet experiences HOL blocking switch fabric

31. Network Layer 4-31 IP addressing: interface  IP address: 32-bit identifier for host, router interface  interface: connection between host/router and physical link  routers typically have multiple interfaces  host typically has one active interface (e.g., wired Ethernet, wireless 802.11)  one IP address associated with each interface 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.2 223.1.1.3 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9 223.1.2.2 223.1.2.1 223.1.3.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.27 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001 223 111

32. Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation “Send me anything with addresses beginning 200.23.16.0/20” 200.23.16.0/23200.23.18.0/23200.23.30.0/23 Fly-By-Night-ISP Organization 0 Organization 7 Internet Organization 1 ISPs-R-Us “Send me anything with addresses beginning 199.31.0.0/16” 200.23.20.0/23 Organization 2...... hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing information: The ability to use a single network prefix to advertise multiple networks is often referred to as route aggregation or route summarization.

33. Network Layer 4-33 When other routers in the larger Internet see the address blocks 200.23.16.0/20 (from Fly-By- Night-ISP) and 200.23.18.0/23 (from ISPs-R-Us) and want to route to an address in the block 200.23.18.0/23, they will use a longest prefix matching rule, and route toward ISPs-R-Us, as it advertises the longest (more specific) address prefix that matches the destination address. “Send me anything with addresses beginning 200.23.16.0/20” 200.23.16.0/23200.23.18.0/23200.23.30.0/23 Fly-By-Night-ISP Organization 0 Organization 7 Internet Organization 1 ISPs-R-Us “Send me anything with addresses beginning 199.31.0.0/16 or 200.23.18.0/23” 200.23.20.0/23 Organization 2...... Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes

34. Network Layer 4-34 END