1. VI A. AGRICULTURE and RURAL DEVELOPMENT ECON 3508November 16, 2015 See Textbook, Chapter 9, pp.437-462 and 468-476

2. Agenda: I.Importance of Agriculture and Rural Areas in Development II.Varying Agricultural Systems in Developing Countries III. The Agricultural Record IV.Agriculture’s Contributions to Development V.More Contemporary Views Emphasizing Agriculture VI. Small scale "Peasant" or Subsistence Agriculture VII.Current Views Regarding Rural and Agricultural Development Policies: VIII. Revised Strategies: Main Elements IX. The Land Reform Issue

3. Kenya: Central Province

4. I.Importance of Agriculture and Rural Areas in Development: 1.Everybody has to eat; i.e. agriculture and food are of key importance 2.Large proportions of LDC populations are in agriculture: 3.Disproportionately large numbers of rural people are poor, however this is measured 4.Rural activities earn or save large amounts foreign exchange 5.Rural people usually constitute a large pool of entrepreneurial talent 6.Rural people save and invest 7.Rural areas may be the repositories of traditional societies and their cultures

5. Rural and Urban Population of the World, 1950-2030 Source: UN Population Division.

9. II.Varying Agricultural Systems in Developing Countries: General Features: –Importance of non-agricultural rural activities –"Home-based enterprise” –Partial commercialization virtually everywhere –Role of women in farming –Women provide 60% to 80% of agricultural labor in Africa and Asia, and 40% in Latin America –Women frequently work longer hours than men in agriculture –Government assistance programs tend to reach men, not women

10. II.Varying Agricultural Systems in Developing Countries, cont’d: Latin America and the Caribbean : –The Latifundia / minifundia complex –“Modern" commercial farming –Plantations –Family farms –Co-operatives and state farms –Some “slash and burn” farming – Overall agriculture is doing well in many Latin American countries. E.g.: Chile (diversification), and Brazil (biofuels) – Extreme rural inequalities still persist ;

12. Guatemala: Slash and Burn Agriculture

13. Africa: Small-scale family farming Herding in many places Some export-oriented commercial small farms Some large scale plantations o Some locally owned o Some massive, foreign owned o E.g. rubber and palm oil in Liberia; o Tea in Kenya From "traditional" to "modern,“ o partial commercialization everywhere Some “hunting and gathering” but very little

14. Subsistence or Semi-Subsistence Agriculture Intensive and Extensive Cultivation  Low productivity due to use of simple technology  Shifting Cultivation, in some places  Seasonal demand for labor depending on rainy season  High dependence on unimproved seeds sown on unfertilized, rain-fed fields: i.e. little irrigation, fertilizer- use or improved seed varieties  Relatively high fraction of underutilized land – in some places, not in others  High concern about climate change impact Need for an African new GREEN REVOLUTION; There are hopeful signs that it is getting underway

15. Asia: Plurality of systems: (See Table 9.3 in text.) –Fragmentation and Subdivision of Peasant Land in Asia –Impact of colonial rule in strengthening land tenure systems of private property rights and the consequent rise of moneylenders –Contemporary landlordism in India and Pakistan involves absentee landlordism and persistence of sharecroppers and tenant farmers –Rapid population growth resulted in more fragmentation and peasant impoverishment

16. High Income Countries: –Large scale commercial agriculture: family farm and corporate –Some smaller scale family farming –Highly articulated input provision and output processing activities

18. Table 9.2 Distribution of Farms and Farmland by Operational Farm Size and Land Tenure Status In Selected Developing Countries in Asia and Latin America

19. Table 9.3 Changes in Farm Size and Land Distribution

20. III.The Agricultural Record 1. The geographical pattern of agricultural production expansion: 2. Employment, agricultural output and agricultural productivity 3. Specific case of Africa Some general explanatory factors: "Green revolution” bio-tech. changes: uneven incidence by country and food crop; varying support from government policies and programs general economic policies (urban bias…) geographical factors political strife

21. Figure 9.2 Cereal Yields by World Region, 1960-2005

22. Figure 9.4 Expansion of Modern Inputs in the World’s Developing Regions

23. Table 9.1 Land Productivity in Developed and Developing Countries

25. Figure 9.1 As Countries Develop, the Shares of GDP and Labor in Agriculture Tend to Decline, but with Many Idiosyncrasies

26. IV.Agriculture’s Contributions to Development A. Earlier Views in theorizing of 1950's and 1960's (e.g. Lewis; “Dependency” approach; Soviet model, ………) –Supplying foodstuffs to other sectors (the “agricultural surplus”) –Releasing surplus labour to the “modern sector" –Providing a surplus for investment (savings) to the “modern sector” –Earning foreign exchange –Providing a rural market for the urban industrial sector [ Note: these functions were largely passive and extractive, with the main emphasis being focused on in the urban industrial modern sector.]

27. B. Policy Consequences of these views: focus on modern industry in urban areas and ignore agriculture and rural areas use agriculture to service the modern sector with outflows of people, food and savings discriminate in favour of modern industrial sector and against agriculture and rural areas (i.e. "Urban Bias”) Food pricing policy Taxation patterns Infrastructure investment Tariff and non-tariff barriers Social expenditures Credit policies Exchange rate policies

28. V.More Contemporary Views Emphasizing Agriculture Rural Development Agriculture should be emphasized for the following reasons: 1.To raise rural income, because poverty is over- represented in rural areas; 2.Rates of return are often higher in parts of agriculture than other sectors; 3.Rural entrepreneurship can serve as a strong foundation for economic improvement and “pro-poor” development;

29. 4.Non-agricultural informal sector activities can also be valuable for economic improvement and income generation; 5.Food security 6.Increasing agricultural output can stimulate linked industrial and service sector activities such as food processing; 7.Reinforcing the traditional cultures (language, arts, music, handicrafts, and "ways of life") of a country which are often to be found in rural areas.

30. VI.Small scale "Peasant" or Subsistence Agriculture 1.Older views regarding peasant agriculture: 2. The theory of the optimizing peasant (Michael Lipton)

31. Subsistence farming: risk aversion, uncertainty, and survival –Traditional neoclassical model of profit maximization with certainty is not adequate –Price, weather, and other uncertainty, along with limited access to credit and insurance (and even savings vehicles), largely explains the extent of risk-averse behaviors observed –Risk-averse subsistence farmers often (not irrationally) can prefer technologies that combine low mean-per-hectare with low variance to alternative high yielding but higher risk technologies –Efforts to minimize risk and remove commercial and institutional obstacles to small farmer innovation are necessary

32. Figure 9.6 Crop Yield Probability Densities of Two Different Farming Techniques: an illustration Omit

33. Issues in sharecropping: a long debate: Is share- cropping efficient? –Intrinsically Inefficient due to poor incentives (Marshall) –Monitoring approach (Cheung) (landlord would set minimum target output and replace tenant if target were not reached.) –Empirical evidence for inefficiency from Ali Shaban (comparing same farmer, controlling for soil) ( farmers provided fewer inputs for rented land compared to their own land) –Giving sharecroppers a larger share of the produce and security of tenure on land can increase efficiency (Shared risk re crop failure; shared risk re minimized work incentives) Omit

34. Figure 9.7 Incentives under Sharecropping: the “Marshallian case. Omit pp 466-468

35. VII.Current Views Regarding Rural and Agricultural Development Policies: –The heavy emphasis in the past on rapid industrialization was misplaced –Agricultural development is now seen as an important part of any development strategy – Farm people can be innovative in the right policy and institutional environment; –Aim for “broad-based rural development” focusing on rural people; –Design “pro-poor” rural development strategies

36. VIII. Revised Strategies: Particular Challenges Rural poverty, malnutrition and famine inspire calls for a new green revolution focused on Africa. Climate change poses risks and problems for food production, with harmful consequences for poverty General and rural population growth generates an increasing need for food production

37. Revised Strategies: Main Elements 1. Support “ Green Revolution ” innovations: –Improved seed varieties; [See CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) http://www.cgiar.org/] CGIAR http://www.cgiar.org/ –Irrigation, maybe drainage, plus fertilizers –Emphasize agro-forestry; See: http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/ http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/ –Emphasize employment creation in agriculture and related rural activities; –Avoid large scale labour -displacing mechanization

38. 2. Don’t discriminate against agriculture and rural areas in general public policies; –Aim for a “level playing field” re specific policies; 3. Focus on anti-poverty types of investment in rural areas: –(feeder roads, irrigation, agricultural extension, credit, water availability, social infrastructure;) –i.e. rural public works, employing rural people;

39. 4.Support rural non-agricultural and often “informal sector” economic activities in rural areas; 5.Agrarian and/or land reform where appropriate; 6.Supportive social institutions: schools, health centers, co-operatives 7. Emphasize also environmental sustainability in rural areas and in agriculture

40. Major Roles for Government in Agricultural and Rural Development –Ensure shared growth in agriculture sector –Addressing poverty and income distribution issues –Health and appropriate education for rural peoples –Rural infrastructure –Providing institutions: coops, rural governance, land reform in some cases…. –Manage environmental externalities –Agricultural research and extension services –Economies of scale in marketing –Health and safety re product quality

41. IX.The Land Reform Issue 1.Land tenure and land reform: Definitions 2.Complexities of land tenure structures in various places 3.Varieties of Land reform a.Distribution of large sized units to smaller scale farmers; b.Conversion of large units to state collective or co- operative farms or some mix thereof c.Consolidation of "minifundia“ or scattered parcels of land d.Land tenure "clarification" e.Rent reform reduction or controls 4.The politics of land reform 5.Issues regarding “Plantation” Agriculture 6.Some issues of dividing large scale agricultural properties

42. Some Cases of Land Reform: –Revolutionary confiscations and collectivizations: USSR; China; Cuba: Results? –Military-imposed redistributions: Japan; Taiwan Results? –Moderate redistributions: Chile 1964-1973; Kenya; –Current cases: Brazil; Zimbabwe. Conclusion

43. SUMMARY: What can agriculture do for development? Agriculture has effectively served as a basis for growth and reduced poverty in many countries, But many more countries could benefit if governments and donors were to reverse years of policy neglect and remedy their underinvestment and mis-investment in agriculture. What are effective instruments in using agriculture for development? They include –increasing the assets of poor households, –making householders—and agriculture in general— more productive, creating opportunities in the rural nonfarm economy that the rural poor can seize. Source: World Bank, WDR, 2008

44. SUMMARY: How can agriculture-for-development agendas best be implemented? By designing policies and decision-making processes suited to each country’s economic and social conditions, –mobilizing political support, and –improving the governance of agriculture Source: World Bank, WDR, 2008

45. X.The Six “I”s of Agricultural Development: What Agricultural and Rural Development Need: 1.Initiative 2.Incentives 3.Innovations 4.Inputs 5.Infrastructure 6.Institutions