1. A PEACE TO END ALL PEACE? ISSUES LEFT UNRESOLVED AT VERSAILLES
Poles, “Czechoslovaks”, “Yugoslavs”, Lithuanians, Latvians, & Estonians gained national self-determination, but NOT the Irish, Ukrainians, Kurds, Arabs, Indians, or Africans.
The status of the Soviet regime was determined through the Russian Civil War of
Poland’s eastern border was determined through the Russo-Polish War of
Italian nationalist volunteers seized Fiume in September 1919; their Free State of Fiume merged with Italy in 1924.
The borders of Turkey were only defined in the Greco-Turkish War of
Hopes for the spread of democracy were disappointed.

2. Sir William Orpen, “The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919”
Sir William Orpen, "The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919," in the Musee des Deux Guerres Mondiales (from Keegan, ILLUSTRATED FIRST WORLD WAR, p. 394). In the front, Dr. Johannes Bell of Germany (with back to us) signs this dictated peace, while the Hermann Mueller looks over his shoulder; these were civilian politicians from the Center and Social Democratic Parties, which alone were willing to take responsibility for signing this peace. Seated in the front row of the Allied delegation (from the left) are three high advisors, then Secretary of State Robert Lansing and President Woodrow Wilson; in the center are Georges Clemenceau and David Lloyd George; on the right, Bonar Law, Arthur Balfour, Viscount Milner, and G.N. Barnes from the British delegation, and finally the Marquis Saionzi (Japan). The back row includes an Indian maharajah in the middle, flanked by the prime ministers of Greece, Portugal, Canada, Serbia, Italy, Belgium, South Africa, and Australia. This room was chosen because the German Empire had been proclaimed here in January 1871.

3. Delegation of French wounded at the signing ceremony for the Treaty of Versailles
Clemenceau personally ordered that a delegation of French soldiers who had suffered hideous facial wounds should stand near the table where the German delegates signed the treaty. The military governor of Paris then instructed the chief surgeon of the military hospital at Val-de-Grace to nominate five of his patients whose faces best reflected the hideous suffering caused by this war. SOURCE:

4. European language groups, 1910
The major ethnic groups of Europe in the 19th century.
SOURCE:
European borders, 1922

5. “Red Parliament! Vote Social Democratic” (Budapest, 1919)
Bela Kun led the
Soviet Republic of Hungary
from March to August 1919
Bela Kun, leader of the Soviet Republic of Hungary from March to August 1919.
SOURCE:
"Red Parliament! Vote Social Democratic" (Hungary 1919). The historic house of parliament in Budapest is being transformed by a giant worker, as the Social Democrats advocate a coalition government with the Communists.
SOURCE: Beth Lewis and Peter Paret, _Persuasive Images_, p. 110.
“Red Parliament! Vote Social Democratic” (Budapest, 1919)

6. Hungarian nationalist poster from 1919: The red worker is horrified because his uprising has smashed Hungary to pieces
"Hungary" (Manno Miltiades, 1919). This gigantic worker is horrified by his own actions, which have resulted in the destruction of the Hungarian state. SOURCE: Lewis and Paret, PERSUASIVE IMAGES, p. 110.

7. Admiral Miklos Horthy, “Regent” of Hungary, 1919-1944
Admiral Miklos Horthy ( ), "Regent" of Hungary from 1919 to 1944.
SOURCE:

8. The Russian Civil War, : France intervened from Odessa; Britain from Murmansk & Archangel; Japan & the USA from Vladivostok
SOURCE: _WESTERN CIVILIZATION: THE CONTINUING EXPERIMENT_, 4th edn., p. 886.

9. “Be Vigilant!” (1920): The threats include capitalist minions in Finnland and the Baltic Republics and Ukrainian nationalists
"Be vigilant!" (Dimitri Moor, USSR, 1920). Moor produced posters for the Revolutionary Military Council under Trotsky; in this one a gigantic Red Army soldier defends a western border menaced by black capitalists, a French army officer, and a Ukrainean hetman. From Lewis & Paret, PERSUASIVE IMAGES, p. 103.

10. Field Marshal Jozef Pilsudski, Polish chief of state, 1918-1922; dictator, 1926-1935
Field Marshal Josef Pilsudski ( ), Polish chief of state from 1918 to 1922 and dictator from
SOURCE:

11. Polish peasants with their scythes volunteer to fight in the Russo-Polish War, 1920
Polish peasants with their scythes volunteer to fight in the Russo-Polish War in From DER ZWEITE WELTKRIEG, p. 61.

12. The front line in the Soviet-Polish War in June 1920, at the height of Polish success
Front line in the Polish-Soviet War at the high-point of Polish success in June 1920; the final Polish Soviet border of is marked in black.
SOURCE:

13. Gabriele d’Annunzio, the Italian poet and war hero who led volunteers into Fiume in September 1919, the first “Duce”
Photograph of Gabriele d'Annunzio, a famous poet and war hero, Italy's first "Duce", soon after he led Italian volunteers in the seizure of Fiume in September 1919.
Collection Roger-Viollet;

14. Benito Mussolini ( ): school teacher, revolutionary Marxist, editor of the main Italian Socialist newspaper,
Benito Mussolini in 1911, when he was a rising star on the left wing of the Italian Socialist Party. In October 1911 he was arrested for his agitation against the Libyan War and was later sentenced to 6 months in prison. Some observers compared him to Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg as one of the three most influential revolutionary Marxists in Europe on the eve of the First World War.
SOURCE:

15. Mussolini as a volunteer in the Italian army, 1917
Mussolini as a volunteer in the Italian army, He founded an interventionist newspaper in 1915 and then served bravely at the front for nine months.
Benito Mussolini as a soldier, 1917.
SOURCE:

16. In Italian fascio can refer to a bundle of sticks or a band of men.
A modern reenactment of a procession of lictors, who carried before the ancient consuls of Rome the fasces that symbolized their authority.
In Italian fascio can refer to a bundle of sticks or a band of men.
A contemporary reenactment of a procession of Roman lictors, bearing the fasces.
SOURCE:

17. Fascist Black Shirts March on Rome, October 1922
The Blackshirts march on Rome, October 1922.
SOURCE:

18. Mussolini served as Prime Minister of Italy, , and suppressed all other parties in 1924/25. He advocated rule by the “aristocracy of the trenches.”
Mussolini possessed a rich voice, gift of gesture, and ability to project powerful emotions comparable to that of the greatest Italian actors. SOURCE: Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion in World War II (New York, 1976), p. 78.

19. LORD KITCHENER SEEKS A NEW “KHALIF” AMONG THE HASHEMITES OF MECCA
Hussein bin Ali, Emir of Mecca since 1908, self-proclaimed King of the Hejaz,
Faisal bin al Hussein, elected King of Syria in 1920; appointed King of Iraq,
Abdullah bin al-Hussein, Emir of Transjordania, , then King of Jordan,
See Israel-Arab Reader, pp
Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener ( ): appointed commander of the Army of Egypt in 1892, victor at Omdurman in 1898, commander of the British army in the Boer War from 1900 to 1902, commander-in-chief in India, , and Minister of War from 1914 to 1916.
SOURCE:

20. Lt. Col. T.E. Lawrence ( ) and “Emir Faisal’s camel-mounted irregulars” (photos in the British press, 1917)
Lt. Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence ( ), photographed in the white silk robes worn by the Sherifs of Mecca.
SOURCE:
"Emir Faisal's camel-mounted irregulars," photograph published in the British press in 1917.
SOURCE:

21. The British military commander of Jerusalem, Borton Pasha, on December 11, 1917
The British military governor of Jerusalem, Borton Pasha, followed by two aides-de-camp on December 11, 1917.
SOURCE: John Keegan, _An Illustrated History of the First World War_ (New York: Knopf, 2001), p One of the officers with General Allenby, Captain James Pollock, wrote that "Jerusalem has made us all feel that Christ can be our pal."
SOURCE: Tom Segev, ONE PALESTINE, COMPLETE: JEWS AND ARABS UNDER THE BRITISH MANDATE (New York: Henry Holt, 2000), following p. 182.

22. Emir Faisal’s delegation to Versailles (with T.E. Lawrence)
Why did Faisal seek agreement with the Zionists?
See Israel-Arab Reader, pp
Emir Faisal's delegation at Versailles, during the Paris Peace Conference of Left to right: Rustum Haidar, Nuri as-Said, Prince Faisal, Captain Pisani (behind Faisal), T.E. Lawrence, Faisal's slave (name unknown), Captain Hassan Khadri.
SOURCE:

23. See Israel-Arab Reader, pp. 9-10.
Theodor Herzl at the Sixth Zionist Congress in 1903 and his famous book published in 1896, The Jewish State
Theodor Herzl Leaving the Synagogue in Basel on the Occasion of the Sixth Zionist Congress (1903).
Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist, editor, and political activist Theodor Herzl ( ) worked as a correspondent and later as an editor for the liberal Viennese newspaper, _Die Neue Freie Presse_ [New Free Press]. Although Herzl had encountered anti-Semitism as a student at the University of Vienna in the early 1880s, it was not until the Dreyfus Affair of the mid-1890s that he reached the firm conclusion that Jewish assimilation into European society was neither possible nor desirable. (Herzl was a correspondent in Paris around the time of Dreyfus’s arrest and would later experience mobs chanting anti-Semitic slogans.) In 1896, Herzl published the book The Jewish State, which advocated the founding of an independent Jewish state and emigration to an independent Jewish homeland. The following year, Herzl organized the First Zionist Congress, which was held in Basel, Switzerland, and aimed to advance Zionist political goals and strategies. It was there that he was elected president of the World Zionist Organization. Herzl would prove to be a tireless campaigner for the Zionist cause, raising funds, founding the Zionist newspaper _Die Welt_, and lobbying foreign dignitaries. At the Sixth Zionist Congress (1903), shown here, he proposed Uganda as a temporary Jewish refuge, especially for Russian Jews fleeing pogroms. The proposal was met with a storm of protest, however, and was rejected the following year. In 1904, Herzl died of heart disease at the young age of forty-one. At the time of his death, his diplomatic efforts had produced few concrete results, but Zionism was a well organized and internationally recognized movement.
SOURCE:
See Israel-Arab Reader, pp

24. ZIONISTS IN THE BRITISH CABINET?
Arthur James Balfour: PM ; Foreign Secretary
Balfour’s advisor, Leopold Amery, became Colonial Secretary, : “I was keen on an advance into Palestine on military grounds, and the idea of establishing in Palestine a prosperous community bound to Britain by ties of gratitude and interest naturally appealed to me. I already had doubts as to the permanence of our protectorate in Egypt.”
Arthur James Balfour ( ), leader of the British Conservative Party, Prime Minister, , and Foreign Secretary under David Lloyd George, David Lloyd George ( ), Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, photographed speaking in Camberwell Baths in
[SOURCE: Bildersammlung: Protagonisten. The Yorck Project: Das große dpa-Bildarchiv, S. 578
(vgl. dpa, S. 172) (c) 2005 The Yorck Project]
SOURCE:
Leopold Amery, on the cover of TIME MAGAZINE, January 3, For his strategy, see Bernard Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism , 3rd ed. (New York and London: Longman, 1995), p. 250.
See Israel-Arab Reader, p. 16.

25. THE BALFOUR DECLARATION (from a letter of November 2, 1917, by Foreign Secretary Balfour to Lord Rothschild and the Zionist Federation)
“His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.”
SOURCE:

26. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, which conflicted with Britain’s promises to the Hashemite Arabs in 1915 and the Balfour Declaration of 1917
From

27. Prime Minister Venizelos and “Megali Hellas” (1920): Lloyd George encouraged the Greeks to seize Constantinople
Map of "Megali Hellas" or Greater Greece, featuring Prime Minister Elitherios Venizelos (1920).
SOURCE:

28. General Mustapha Kemal at Gallipoli in 1915, later known as “Kemal Ataturk”
The young General Mustapha Kemal ( ), an activist in the Young Turk movement and commander of the 19th Division which took the lead in opposing the British landings at Gallipoli. His outstanding generalship in this campaign laid the foundation for his rise to become the founder of modern Turkey as Kemal "Ataturk" (Father of the Turks).
SOURCE: John Keegan, _An Illustrated History of the First World War_ (New York: Knopf, 2001), p. 226.

29. Turkish cavalry moves toward the front in the Greco-Turkish War of million Greeks fled Asia Minor, & 500,000 Muslims fled Greece
Turkish cavalry moves toward the front in the Greco-Turkish War of 1921/22. From DER ZWEITE WELTKRIEG, p. 61.

30. The Partition of the Ottoman Empire
The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the First World War.
SOURCE: Hammond's HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE WORLD, rev. edn (Maplewood, NJ, 1987), H-37.

31. Abdulaziz ibn Saud ( ), of the “Wahabi” sect of Islam, meanwhile ignored the British as he gained control of the Arabian peninsula by 1925
King Abdulaziz ibn Saud ( ) confers with an American interested in petroleum, 1934.
He reconquered his ancestral home city of Riyadh in 1902, consolidated control over the Najd in 1922, conquered the Hijaz in 1925, and founded the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Oil was discovered in his kingdom in 1938, and large-scale production began after He had 45 sons, including the subsequent kings of Saudi Arabia.
SOURCE:

32. THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRACY
1918/19: Lenin imposes one-party state with powerful secret police in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (which formed the USSR in 1922).
1919: Military dictatorship in Hungary under Horthy.
1922: Fascists come to power in Italy and by 1925 suppress all other parties.
1923: General Primo de Rivera dissolves Spanish parliament and rules in the name of King Alfonso XIII.
1926: Pilsudski imposes strong-man rule in Poland and suppresses parliament in 1929.
1929: King Alexander I of Yugoslavia suppresses parliament and imposes royal dictatorship.
1931: Military leaders gain power in Japan.
1933: Nazi seizure of power in Germany

33. Assassinated by a Croatian separatist in Marseilles, 1934
King Alexander I of Yugoslavia (r ), who imposed royal dictatorship in 1929
King Alexander I of Yugoslavia ( , ascended to the throne of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in 1921; imposed a royal dictatorship in 1929; restored a modified constitution in 1931 but was nonetheless assassinated by Croatian separatists in 1934).
SOURCE:
Assassinated by a Croatian separatist in Marseilles, 1934

34. Czechoslovakia was the only successful new democracy (the arrival of Thomas Masaryk in Prague, December 21, 1918)
The arrival of the first President of Czechoslovakia, T.G. Masaryk, in Prague on December 21, 1918.
SOURCE: John Keegan, _An Illustrated History of the First World War_ (New York: Knopf, 2001), p. 362.

35. Already by 1922, it was clear that only the green countries supported the Versailles settlement
Interwar Europe,
SOURCE: R.R. Palmer, ed., _Historical Atlas of the World_ (Chicago and New York: Rand McNally, 1965), p. 36.