1. Covalent Bonding: Orbitals

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–2 Liquid oxygen poured into the space between the poles of a strong magnet remains there until it boils away. Source: Donald Clegg

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–3 Figure 14.1: (a) Lewis structure of the methane molecule (b) the tetrahedral molecular geometry of the methane molecule.

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–4 Figure 14.2: valence orbitals on a free carbon atom

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–5 Figure 14.3: native 2s and three 2p atomic orbitals characteristic of a free carbon atome are combined to form a new set of four sp3 orbitals.

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–6 Figure 14.4: Cross section of an sp3 orbital

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–7 Figure 14.5: Energy-level diagram showing the formation of four sp 3 orbitals

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–8 Figure 14.6: Tetrahedral set of four sp 3 orbitals on the carbon atom

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–9 Figure 14.7: The nitrogen atom in ammonia is sp 3 hybridized.

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–10 Figure 14.8: The hybridization of the s, p x, and p y atomic orbitals results in the formation of three sp 2 orbitals centered in the xy plane.

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–11 The plastics shown here were manufactured with ethylene. Source: Comstock - Mountainside, NJ

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–12 Figure 14.9: An orbital energy-level diagram for sp 2 hybridization:

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–13 Figure 14.10: When one s and two p oribitals are mixed to form a set of three sp 2 orbitals, one p orbital remains unchanged and is perpendicular to the plane of the hybrid orbitals.

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–14 Figure 14.11: The s bonds in ethylene.

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–15 Figure 14.12: A carbon-carbon double bond consists of a s bond and a p bond.

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–16 Figure 14.13: (a) The orbitals used to form the bonds in ethylene. (b) The Lewis structure for ethylene.

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–17 Figure 14.14: When one s orbital and one p orbital are hybridized, a set of two sp orbitals oriented at 180 degrees results.

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–18 Figure 14.15: The hybrid orbitals in the CO 2 molecule

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–19 Figure 14.16: orbital energy level diagram for the formation of sp hybrid orbitals of carbon.

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–20 Figure 14.17: Orbitals of an sp hybridized carbon atom

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–21 Figure 14.18: Orbital arrangement for an sp 2 hybridized oxygen atom

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–22 Figure 14.19: (a) Orbitals predicted by the LE model to describe (b) The Lewis structure for carbon dioxide

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 14a–23 Figure 14.20: (a) An sp hybridized nitrogen atom (b) The s bond in the N 2 molecule (c) the two p bonds in N 2 are formed when