1. Structure and Function of Macromolecules Chapter 5 Campbell and Reese

2. Polymer Construction and Destruction  Dehydration synthesis  Monomers put together with the loss of a H 2 O molecule.  Hydrolysis  Polymers are broken apart by adding water.

4. Sugars are Aldehydes and Ketones

5. Glucose assumes a cyclic structure in aqueous solutions

6. Macromolecules  Macromolecules are made up of smaller molecules.  Polymers  Long molecules of repeating identical or repeating units.  Four major Classes of Biological polymers.  Carbohydrates  Lipids  Proteins  Nucleic Acids

8. Carbohydrates  Monomers - Monosaccharide  – simple sugars  Glucose, fructose, galactose  Glucose is the ultimate source of fuel for animals.  Polymers – Polysaccharides  For carbohydrates the repeating unit is glucose.  The difference resides in the link between the glucose molecules  These are called glycosidic linkages

9. Types of Polysaccharides StarchStarch Found in plants and are usually stored in roots.Found in plants and are usually stored in roots. Fuel moleculesFuel molecules GlycogenGlycogen Found in animals and stored in the liverFound in animals and stored in the liver More compact than starch molecules.More compact than starch molecules. Fuel molecules.Fuel molecules. CelluloseCellulose Structural molecule found in plantsStructural molecule found in plants Arranged in sturdy strandsArranged in sturdy strands Found in plant cell wallsFound in plant cell walls Cannot be digested by humans because their enzymes cannot recognize the beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage between glucose molecules.Cannot be digested by humans because their enzymes cannot recognize the beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage between glucose molecules.  Chitin  Structural molecule found in the shells of insects  Only carbohydrate that contains nitrogen

10. Chitin

12. Starch the Storage Molecule

13. Cellulose is a Structural Molecule

14. Chitin is a Structural Molecule in Insects

15. Lipids  Lipids are composed of 1 to 3 fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule.  Lipids are primarily hydrophobic due to the long chains of non polar bonds within the hydrocarbon chain.  Function  Fuels  Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains.  The bond between the carbon and hydrogen atom contains a lot of energy.  This is why fat molecules store a lot of energy.  The building blocks for to steroid hormones like testosterone and estrogen.  Cholesterol is a group of fused rings that serve as the foundation to steroid hormones  Cholesterol is also found in cell membranes and contribute to the fluid nature of a membrane.  Phospholipids are found in cell membranes.  Insulation  Adipose tissue used for padding and insulation

16. Lipids Composed of Fatty Acids and Glycerol

17. Saturates Versus Unsaturated Lipids

18. Saturated and Non Saturated Lipids  Saturated Lipids  Solid  Comes from animals.  Lard and butter  Have a single bond between all carbons within the fatty acid chain.  Non Saturated Lipids  Oils  Comes from plants  Have a double bond between all carbons within the fatty acid chain.

19. Phospholipids Have a Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic End

20. Phospholipids and Hydrophobic Interactions  Hydrophobic Interactions  Because lipids have a hydrophilic and hydrophobic end the hydrophilic end of the molecule is attracted to H 2 O.  The hydrophobic tails face inward.  Because the hydrophobic tails are “hiding” from water they form structures such as  Micelles  Thought to have contributed to how the first cells were formed.  Lipid Bilayers  The basic structure pf membranes

22. Phospholipids

23. Cholesterol

24. Proteins  Monomers  Amino acids also called peptides  Called amino acids because there is an amino group on one end and a carboxyl group on the other end.  The carboxyl group donates protons to the amino group and there acts as an acid.  All amino acids have the same basic structure and differ only in their R groups.  Polymer  Polypeptide  Held together by peptide bonds.  Proteins form very complex structures

25. Basic Structure of an Amino Acid

26. Proteins  Function  Support  Connective tissue – tendons  Skin  Appendages  Feathers /hair  Storage  Ovalbumin – egg whites  Nutrition for developing chick embryos  Seeds  Protein stored for developing plant embryos  Transport  Hemoglobin  Transport O 2 in blood  Hormones  Epinephrine  Fight or flight hormone  Defense  Antibodies  Motility  Flagella

27. Non Polar Amino Acids

28. Polar Amino Acids

29. Formation of the Peptide Bond

31. Levels of Protein Structure Primary Structure involves the order of the amino acids within the polypeptide chain. Secondary Structure is how the polypeptide chain folds back on itself. –Caused by hydrogen bonding between an amino group of one amino acid and the carbonyl group of another within the polypeptide backbone. –Two types Alpha Helix Beta Pleated Sheet

33. Tertiary Structure

34.  R Groups bind together  Disulfide Bridges  Ionic Bonds  Covalent Bonds  Hydrogen bonds  Hydrophobic side chains tend to end up on the interior of the protein up on the interior of the protein  Hydrophilic groups tend to face the exterior in aqueous environments.

35. Quaternary Structure – More than one Polypeptide chain

36. Complex Proteins Typically have all four levels of structure.

37. Denaturation  When hydrogen bonds within the protein’s secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure are disrupted the protein unravels.  Because shape affects the This affects the function of the protein because the shape of the protein determines its function