1. Chapter 13: RNA and Protein Synthesis RNA

2. What is RNA? RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) – How is RNA physically different from DNA? 1. Single strand not a double 2. Contains Ribose and not deoxyribose 3. Uracil replaces thymine as nitrogen base – DNA is the “masterplan” – RNA are the “blueprints” for protein synthesis

3. What are the functions of RNA? 3 Main Functions – Messenger RNA Carries the assembly information for each protein – Ribosomal RNA Assembles the proteins from the instructions given – Transfer RNA Takes amino acids to the proteins that need them

4. What is RNA Synthesis? Transcription – Synthesis of RNA molecule from a DNA pattern – Creation of RNA – Complementary strand of DNA sequence Same as the DNA sequence hence the same bases except for uracil – RNA Polymerase Enzyme Binds to DNA Pulls DNA apart 1 strand used to make complementary strand Promoters – Tell RNA where to bind – Looks for specific sequences to bind to

5. Chapter 13: RNA and Protein Synthesis Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis

6. Genetic Code What are amino acids? – Building blocks of protein – Long chains of polypeptides created out of them – 9 “essential” amino acids Proteins – Made up of different combos of amino acids – Shape and function all determined by what amino acid goes in it

7. Genetic Code What is Genetic Code? – Combo of the 4 bases (A,C,G,U) – 3 bases in a row makes an amino acid 3 letter combos called “codons” Some amino acids have multiple codons Read from the center to the outside 64 different codons – Used to create protein Every protein will begin with AUG (methionine) Certain codons will mark end of protein

8. Codon Table

9. Translation Process of converting amino acids to proteins Takes place in cytoplasm Step 1: Transfer RNA – tRNA brings amino acids to ribosome based on pattern – Also brings the anti-codon (complementary strand) Step 2: Joining Amino Acids – Peptide bonds form between 1 st and 2 nd acid – Breaks the bond between the amino acid and tRNA Step 3: Chain Grows – Goes until it hits a stop codon

10. Chapter 13: RNA and Protein Synthesis Mutations

11. Types of Mutations What is a mutation? – Change in the genetic material Gene Mutations – Occurs during replication – Changes are passed on in cell division Daughter cells will have mutation – 1. Substitutions One base (A,C,G,U) is changed in sequence Sometimes there is no change (Example) – 2. Insertions Adding a base to the sequence (Example) – 3. Deletions Taking away a base from sequence (Example)

12. Examples 1. Substitutions

13. Examples 2 and 3. Insertions and Deletions

14. Type of Mutations Chromosomal Mutations – 1. Deletions Removal of entire chromosome – 2. Duplication Copy of chromosome made and added – 3. Inversion Swapping of chromosomal positions – 4. Translocation Total movement of chromosome

15. Examples

16. Chapter 13: RNA and Protein Synthesis Gene Regulation

17. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation How do they regulate genes? – Through controlling transcription – Operons Group of genes that can be regulated together Lac Operon – Responsible for breaking down bonds when lactose is present – Lactose found in dairy products

18. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation Role of Promoters and Operators – Promoters Place where RNA polymerase binds Allows for transcription – Operators Place where Lac repressor binds to DNA – These are how transcription is regulated – Lac repressor will keep things from happening when needed

19. Hox Genes Role of Hox Genes – Controls the formation of the body – Tells body parts where to go in development – Also tells the body when it needs to develop – Humans have them