1. Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 12
Psychology
Motivation and Emotion

2. Section 1 – Motivation
The various psychological and physiological factors that cause us to act a certain way at a certain time.
Because motivation cannot be observed directly, psychologists infer motivation from goal-directed behavior.
Behavior is usually energized by many motives that may originate from outside of us or inside of us.
Psychologists explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways: instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and cognitive theories.

3. Instinct Theory
In the 1900s, William McDougall proposed that instincts motivate human behavior.
Instincts are inborn tendencies that determine how an animal will behave in certain situations.
Instincts do not involve reason.
Instinctive behavior will be about the same for all members of a species.
Flaw – instincts do not explain human behavior; they simply label behavior.

4. Drive-reduction theory
Theory – Physiological needs drive an organism to act in either random or habitual ways.
Something that motivates us starts with a need and leads to a drive.
Need: a physical or psychological requirement (oxygen, food / love, approval).
Drive: a feeling of tension caused by an unmet need (different needs with different goals – hunger drives us to eat / curiosity drives us to find out something).

5. Drive-reduction theory (cont.)
Theory came form the work of Clark Hull
When organism is missing something it needs, it becomes tense and restless.
This tension throws the organism out of balance.
Trying to correct the imbalance is called homeostasis.
To relieve the tension and return to homeostasis, the organism takes random actions.
It will first try the behavior that worked before.

6. Flaws to Drive-Reduction
Harry Harlow experiment on monkeys:
According to DRT, infants become attached to mothers to relieve drives hunger and thirst
Infant monkeys preferred cloth mothers for comfort to wire mother with food.
Another argument is that people sometimes intentionally do things that increase tension rather than try to relieve it.
riding roller coasters or watching scary movies

7. Incentive theory
Incentive – the object we seek or the result we are trying to achieve through our motivated behavior (also known as reinforcers, goals, and rewards).
Incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.
When drives push us to reduce needs; incentives pull us to obtain them.
Ex: hunger may cause us to walk to the cafeteria, but the incentive is the sandwich we want.
People are motivated to obtain positive incentives and to avoid negative incentives.

8. Cognitive theory
Proposes that we act because of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.
Extrinsic motivation (“outside ourselves”):
Engaging in activities to reduce biological needs or obtain incentives or external rewards.
Too much extrinsic motivation may cause the overjustification effect (intrinsic motivation declines).
Intrinsic motivation (“inside ourselves”):
Engaging in activities because those activities are personally rewarding or because engaging in them fulfills our beliefs or expectations
You may engage in both at the same time.

9. Biological and Social Motives
Section 2
Biological and Social Motives

10. Motivation: “Biological motive”
Like other animals, humans must satisfy some physical needs to survive.
The nervous system requires a balance of elements such as water, oxygen, salt, and vitamins to stay healthy.
When you body senses an imbalance, it will motivate actions aimed at retuning itself to balance (homeostasis).

11. hunger You eat for many reasons:
Smell of food
Habit (ex: at 11:30 each day)
Social reasons (psychosocial hunger factors)
Your body requires food to grow, to repair itself, and to store reserves.
You if you go without food for a long time, your body will demand food. To what is it responding?

12. Biological Factors affecting Hunger
Hypothalamus interprets information:
Lateral hypothalamus (LH) – the part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals.
Stimulated – start eaging / severed - starve
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VH) – the part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating.
Stimulated – stop eating / severed – eat w/o stopping
The glucostatic theory - monitors the amount of glucose (ready energy) entering the cells of the body.
Set-point – the weight around which your day-to-day weight tends to fluctuate.

13. Social factors affecting hunger
External cues – such as where, when, and what we eat.
When other are eating, we tend to eat more.
You may choose to eat popcorn at a movie because you always do.
You may choose not to eat because you want to look like a model.
Can lead to eating disorders.

14. obesity
The genes you inherit may give you a tendency to be overweight.
Overweight – 20% above ideal weight
Obese – 30% over ideal weight
Studies show – obese people eat because of external cues (from the environment).
Normal-weight people tend to respond more to internal signals (hunger).
Anxiety and depression are not causes of overeating.

15. Motivation: “Social motives”
Learned from our experiences with other people.
Achievement motivation
the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in trying to reach those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks.
High achievers prefer to be associated with experts who will help them achieve, instead of with more friendly people.
Fear of failure motivation
Choose easy tasks offering assured success or impossible tasks with no chance of success.
Find excuses to explain poor performances.
Fear of success motivation (motive to avoid success)
Found in both men and women
Thought of succeeding in traditional male roles makes women anxious.

16. Other Theories Expectancy-value theory Competency theory
States that how motivated we are depends on how likely we are to be successful in the task (expectancy) and how much the reward for success is worth to us (value).
Competency theory
Suggests that we tend to choose tasks that are reasonably difficult, so we can find out how competent (skilled) we are.
Abraham Maslow – Hierarchy of Needs
Fundamental needs
Psychological needs
Self-actualization needs

17. Section 3: emotions Emotions: Emotional intelligence:
Sometimes, emotions work like physical drives – feelings push us to pursue a goal.
Other times we do things we think will make us feel good (rewards of behavior).
Finally, emotions helps us make decisions and communicate what is going on inside us.
Emotional intelligence:
The ability to understand emotions and use that information to make decisions.
Judging the emotions involved in a situation is a sign of emotional intelligence.

18. Expressing emotions Emotions result from 4 occurrences:
You must interpret some stimulus.
You have a subject feeling (as fear or happiness).
You experience physiological responses (such as increased heart rate).
You display an observable behavior (such as smiling or crying).
All emotions have 3 parts:
Physical (how the emotions affects physical arousal)
Behavioral (how body responds to experienced emotion)
Cognitive (how we think about or interpret a situation, which affects our emotions)

19. Theories Charles Darwin Carroll Izard James Averill
Argues that all people express basic feelings the same way.
Research supports that facial expressions are innate.
Carroll Izard
Identified 10 different emotional states from studying changes in parts of the face (eyebrows, eyes, mouth).
James Averill
Believes that we learn our emotional reactions from social expectations and consequences.
We learn to experience and express emotions in the company of other people.

20. Psysiological theories of emotion
James-Lange Theory
The body’s physical reactions occur first, and we feel emotions when we recognize these changes.
Cannon-Bard Theory
The brain sends two reactions—one waking the body’s processes and the other an experience of emotion.
One does not cause the other; they occur together.
Facial feedback Theory (Izzard)
The way we experience emotion results from what we feel the muscles in our faces doing.

21. Cognitive theories of emotion
Schacter Two-Factor Theory
What you feel depends on the meaning or interpretation you apply to these changes.
Internal parts of emotion affect a person differently, depending on the person’s perception of the social situation.
Opponent-Process Theory
Based on classical conditioning.
The removal of a stimulus that excites one emotion causes a swing to an opposite emotion.
State A – external, emotion-arousing event
State B – internal force
Ex: make a special friend who moves the next week or make a special friend, marry and live together for many years
Ex: novice vs. experienced parachutist