1. Artificial Intelligence Problem solving by searching

2. Problem Solving by Searching Search Methods : informed (Heuristic) search

3. 3 Using problem specific knowledge to aid searching Without incorporating knowledge into searching, one can have no bias (i.e. a preference) on the search space. Without a bias, one is forced to look everywhere to find the answer. Hence, the complexity of uninformed search is intractable. Search everywhere!!

4. Informed Search Strategies Best First Search

5. Informed Search Strategies Greedy Search eval-fn: f(n) = h(n)

6. 6 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

7. 7 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

8. 8 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

9. 9 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

10. 10 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

11. 11 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

12. 12 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

13. 13 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

14. 14 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

15. 15 Greedy Search ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

16. 16 Greedy Search: Tree Search A Start

17. 17 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCE Start 75 118 140 [374] [329] [253]

18. 18 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 GA 80 Start 75 118 140 [374] [329] [253] [193] [366] [178]

19. 19 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCEFI 99 211 GA 80 Start Goal 75 118 140 [374] [329] [253] [193] [366] [178] E [0] [253]

20. 20 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCEFI 99 211 GA 80 Start Goal 75 118 140 [374] [329] [253] [193] [366] [178] E [0] [253] Path cost(A-E-F-I) = 253 + 178 + 0 = 431 dist(A-E-F-I) = 140 + 99 + 211 = 450

21. 21 Greedy Search: Optimal ? ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic dist(A-E-G-H-I) =140+80+97+101=418 StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

22. 22 Greedy Search: Complete ? ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 ** C250 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 140

23. 23 Greedy Search: Tree Search A Start

24. 24 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCE Start 75 118 140 [374] [250] [253]

25. 25 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCED 111 Start 75 118 140 [374] [250] [253] [244]

26. 26 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCED 111 Start 75 118 140 [374] [250] [253] [244] C [250] Infinite Branch !

27. 27 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCED 111 Start 75 118 140 [374] [250] [253] [244] CD [250] [244] Infinite Branch !

28. 28 Greedy Search: Tree Search ABCED 111 Start 75 118 140 [374] [250] [253] [244] CD [250] [244] Infinite Branch !

29. 29 Greedy Search: Time and Space Complexity ? ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 140 Greedy search is not optimal. Greedy search is incomplete without systematic checking of repeated states. In the worst case, the Time and Space Complexity of Greedy Search are both O(b m ) Where b is the branching factor and m the maximum path length

30. Informed Search Strategies A* Search eval-fn: f(n)=g(n)+h(n)

31. 31 A* (A Star) A* uses a heuristic function which combines g(n) and h(n): f(n) = g(n) + h(n) g(n) is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial state. Cost so far up to node n. h(n) is an estimation of the remaining cost to reach the goal.

32. 32 A* (A Star) n g(n) h(n) f(n) = g(n)+h(n)

33. 33 A* Search f(n) = g(n) + h (n) g(n): is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial state. StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H98 I0 A B D C E F I 99 211 G H 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 140

34. 34 A* Search: Tree Search A Start

35. 35 A* Search: Tree Search ABCE Start 75118 140 [393] [449] [447]

36. 36 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 G 80 Start 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413]

37. 37 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 G 80 Start 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] H 97 [415]

38. 38 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEFI 99 GH 80 Start 97 101 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [415] Goal [418]

39. 39 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEFI 99 GH 80 Start 97 101 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [415] Goal [418] I [450]

40. 40 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEFI 99 GH 80 Start 97 101 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [415] Goal [418] I [450]

41. 41 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEFI 99 GH 80 Start 97 101 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [415] Goal [418] I [450]

42. A* with h() not Admissible h() overestimates the cost to reach the goal state

43. 43 A* Search: h not admissible ! ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 f(n) = g(n) + h (n) – (H-I) Overestimated g(n): is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial state. StateHeuristic: h(n) A366 B374 C329 D244 E253 F178 G193 H138 I0 140

44. 44 A* Search: Tree Search A Start

45. 45 A* Search: Tree Search ABCE Start 75118 140 [393] [449] [447]

46. 46 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 G 80 Start 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413]

47. 47 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 G 80 Start 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] H 97 [455]

48. 48 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 GH 80 Start 97 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [455]Goal I [450]

49. 49 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 GH 80 Start 97 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [455]Goal I [450] D [473]

50. 50 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 GH 80 Start 97 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [455]Goal I [450] D [473]

51. 51 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 GH 80 Start 97 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [455]Goal I [450] D [473]

52. 52 A* Search: Tree Search ABCEF 99 GH 80 Start 97 75118 140 [393] [449] [447] [417] [413] [455]Goal I [450] D [473] A* not optimal !!!

53. A* Algorithm A* with systematic checking for repeated states …

54. 54 A* Algorithm 1. Search queue Q is empty. 2. Place the start state s in Q with f value h(s). 3. If Q is empty, return failure. 4. Take node n from Q with lowest f value. (Keep Q sorted by f values and pick the first element). 5. If n is a goal node, stop and return solution. 6. Generate successors of node n. 7. For each successor n’ of n do: a) Compute f(n’) = g(n) + cost(n,n’) + h(n’). b) If n’ is new (never generated before), add n’ to Q. c) If node n’ is already in Q with a higher f value, replace it with current f(n’) and place it in sorted order in Q. End for 8. Go back to step 3.

55. 55 A* Search: Analysis ABDCEFI 99 211 GH 80 Start Goal 97 101 75 118 111 140 A* is complete except if there is an infinity of nodes with f < f(G). A* is optimal if heuristic h is admissible. Time complexity depends on the quality of heuristic but is still exponential. For space complexity, A* keeps all nodes in memory. A* has worst case O(b d ) space complexity, but an iterative deepening version is possible (IDA*).

56. A* Algorithm A* with systematic checking for repeated states An Example: Map Searching

57. 57 SLD Heuristic: h() Straight Line Distances to Bucharest TownSLD Arad366 Bucharest0 Craiova160 Dobreta242 Eforie161 Fagaras178 Giurgiu77 Hirsova151 Iasi226 Lugoj244 TownSLD Mehadai241 Neamt234 Oradea380 Pitesti98 Rimnicu193 Sibiu253 Timisoara329 Urziceni80 Vaslui199 Zerind374 We can use straight line distances as an admissible heuristic as they will never overestimate the cost to the goal. This is because there is no shorter distance between two cities than the straight line distance. Press space to continue with the slideshow.

58. 58 Distances Between Cities

59. Greedy Search in Action … Map Searching

60. 60 Press space to see an Greedy search of the Romanian map featured in the previous slide. Note: Throughout the animation all nodes are labelled with f(n) = h(n). However,we will be using the abbreviations f, and h to make the notation simpler Oradea Zerind Fagaras Sibiu Rimnicu Timisoara Arad We begin with the initial state of Arad. The straight line distance from Arad to Bucharest (or h value) is 366 miles. This gives us a total value of ( f = h ) 366 miles. Press space to expand the initial state of Arad. F= 366 F= 374 F= 253 F= 329 Once Arad is expanded we look for the node with the lowest cost. Sibiu has the lowest value for f. (The straight line distance from Sibiu to the goal state is 253 miles. This gives a total of 253 miles). Press space to move to this node and expand it. We now expand Sibiu (that is, we expand the node with the lowest value of f ). Press space to continue the search. F= 178 F= 380 F= 193 We now expand Fagaras (that is, we expand the node with the lowest value of f ). Press space to continue the search. Bucharest F= 0

61. A* in Action … Map Searching

62. 62 Press space to see an A* search of the Romanian map featured in the previous slide. Note: Throughout the animation all nodes are labelled with f(n) = g(n) + h(n). However,we will be using the abbreviations f, g and h to make the notation simpler Oradea Zerind Fagaras Pitesti Sibiu Craiova Rimnicu Timisoara Bucharest Arad We begin with the initial state of Arad. The cost of reaching Arad from Arad (or g value) is 0 miles. The straight line distance from Arad to Bucharest (or h value) is 366 miles. This gives us a total value of ( f = g + h ) 366 miles. Press space to expand the initial state of Arad. F= 0 + 366 F= 366 F= 75 + 374 F= 449 F= 140 + 253 F= 393 F= 118 + 329 F= 447 Once Arad is expanded we look for the node with the lowest cost. Sibiu has the lowest value for f. (The cost to reach Sibiu from Arad is 140 miles, and the straight line distance from Sibiu to the goal state is 253 miles. This gives a total of 393 miles). Press space to move to this node and expand it. We now expand Sibiu (that is, we expand the node with the lowest value of f ). Press space to continue the search. F= 239 + 178 F= 417 F= 291 + 380 F= 671 F= 220 + 193 F= 413 We now expand Rimnicu (that is, we expand the node with the lowest value of f ). Press space to continue the search. F= 317 + 98 F= 415 F= 366 + 160 F= 526 Once Rimnicu is expanded we look for the node with the lowest cost. As you can see, Pitesti has the lowest value for f. (The cost to reach Pitesti from Arad is 317 miles, and the straight line distance from Pitesti to the goal state is 98 miles. This gives a total of 415 miles). Press space to move to this node and expand it. We now expand Pitesti (that is, we expand the node with the lowest value of f ). Press space to continue the search. We have just expanded a node (Pitesti) that revealed Bucharest, but it has a cost of 418. If there is any other lower cost node (and in this case there is one cheaper node, Fagaras, with a cost of 417) then we need to expand it in case it leads to a better solution to Bucharest than the 418 solution we have already found. Press space to continue. F= 418 + 0 F= 418 In actual fact, the algorithm will not really recognise that we have found Bucharest. It just keeps expanding the lowest cost nodes (based on f ) until it finds a goal state AND it has the lowest value of f. So, we must now move to Fagaras and expand it. Press space to continue. We now expand Fagaras (that is, we expand the node with the lowest value of f ). Press space to continue the search. Bucharest (2) F= 450 + 0 F= 450 Once Fagaras is expanded we look for the lowest cost node. As you can see, we now have two Bucharest nodes. One of these nodes ( Arad – Sibiu – Rimnicu – Pitesti – Bucharest ) has an f value of 418. The other node (Arad – Sibiu – Fagaras – Bucharest (2) ) has an f value of 450. We therefore move to the first Bucharest node and expand it. Press space to continue Bucharest We have now arrived at Bucharest. As this is the lowest cost node AND the goal state we can terminate the search. If you look back over the slides you will see that the solution returned by the A* search pattern ( Arad – Sibiu – Rimnicu – Pitesti – Bucharest ), is in fact the optimal solution. Press space to continue with the slideshow.

63. 63 Consistent Heuristic The admissible heuristic h is consistent (or satisfies the monotone restriction) if for every node N and every successor N’ of N: h(N)  c(N,N’) + h(N’) (triangular inequality) A consistent heuristic is admissible. N N’ h(N) h(N’) c(N,N’)

64. 64 When to Use Search Techniques The search space is small, and There are no other available techniques, or It is not worth the effort to develop a more efficient technique The search space is large, and There is no other available techniques, and There exist “good” heuristics