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3. 1) The legal status of city governments in Texas 2) The different forms of city government in Texas 3) The election systems that Texas cities use 4) The most important policies adopted by Texas cities in terms of budgets, annexation, and land use 5) How big-city politics in Texas has evolved since the 1950s Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc

4. Big City Politics – 2009 Houston Mayor’s Race Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Case Study The Houston mayor’s race was wide open because Bill White, the incumbent mayor, was term limited. Contenders were Annise Parker, the city controller, and Gene Locke, a former city attorney. Electoral politics in big-city Texas involves coalition building. Parker and Locke needed to consolidate their bases of support and reach out to other segments of the community. Locke – hoped to build a base among African American voters to augment his supporters in the business community. Parker – white liberal Democrats were Parker’s primary base. Parker was the most successful at gaining the support of voters that were not part of either candidate’s base, especially Hispanic voters and white conservatives.

5. Authority – City governments have broad authority to provide public services, enact regulations, and levy taxes. Subordinate Governments – City and other units of local government are subordinate units of government, subject to the constitutions and laws of the United States and the state of Texas. The Texas legislature and the governor frequently adopt legislation designed to define and limit the policymaking authority of city government. Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Legal Status of Texas Cities City Ordinance – Laws enacted by the governing body of a municipality to regulate such matters as building construction, land use practices, and driving habits

6. Incorporation – Texas law sets the requirements and procedures under which an unincorporated area may become an incorporated municipality. Voter Approval – Voters of a newly incorporated municipality must approve a city charter. City Charter – The basic law of the city, which defines its powers, responsibilities, and organization Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Legal Status of Texas Cities City Classification – Texas cities are classified as either general-law or home-rule cities.

7. General-Law and Home-Rule Cities General-Law City – Less than 5,000 inhabitants Has only those governmental structures and powers specifically granted by state law Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Legal Status of Texas Cities Dillon’s Rule – General-law cities are bound by Dillon’s rule. Legal principle that a city can exercise only those powers expressly allowed by state law Home-Rule City – A city with 5,000 or more inhabitants may elect to become a home-rule city. Allows them to take any action not prohibited by state or federal law or the constitutions of the United States and the state of Texas Authority – Not bound by Dillon’s rule More freedom in organizational structure, annexation, ordinance- making authority, and election processes

8. General-Law and Home-Rule Cities Over 340 Texas cities are home rule, including all of the state’s big cities. Only 19 cities larger than 5,000 people have chosen to remain general-law cities. Even if a home-rule city falls below the 5,000-population threshold, it maintains its home-rule status. Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Legal Status of Texas Cities The legislature has the power to pass laws limiting home- rule authority.

9. Mayor-Council Form Structure – Voters elect a mayor as the chief executive officer of the city and a council that serves as a legislative body Responsibilities – Raising and spending revenue, passing local ordinances, and supervising the city’s administrative departments Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Forms of City Government Strong or Weak-Mayor Forms: Cities differ in the amount of power the mayor enjoys.

10. Strong Mayor-Council Form Mayor is the foremost figure - both political leader and city’s chief administrator Prepares the budget, enjoys a veto over council actions, hires and fires department heads, and essentially runs city government Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Forms of City Government Critics – The mayor has too much power. Will the mayor create a personal empire and become a political boss? Advocates – Provides for efficient city government because it concentrates policy leadership and policy implementation in the hands of a single elected official, the mayor.

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12. Weak Mayor-Council Form Political authority is fragmented because the mayor shares power with the council and other elected officials. The mayor and council together appoint administrative officials, supervise city administration, and adopt the budget. Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Forms of City Government Critics – Invites corruption and dilutes accountability Proponents – Prevents the mayor from becoming too powerful by creating a check-and-balance system

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14. Council Manager Form The city council/mayor appoints a professional administrator – a city manager to act as the chief executive of the city. The mayor and city council make basic policy decisions, but the city manager is a professional administrator responsible for policy implementation. Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Forms of City Government Critics – May work fine for midsize, uncomplicated cities but not for big cities with diverse populations that need the policy leadership of a strong mayor Advocates – Efficient system that keeps politics out of administration and administrators out of politics

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16. Hybrid Structures The structures of city government seldom match the classic mayor-council or council-manager form of municipal government. Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Forms of City Government Mayor-Council: Many mayor-council cities have added chief administrative officers or deputy mayors who function much as city managers do. Council-Manager: Many council-manager cities have increased the mayor’s power to provide greater accountability.

17. At-Large Election System Every citizen of a political subdivision, such as a state or county, votes to select a public official. Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Election Systems Supporters – Council members consider policy issues from a broader perspective. Quality Officials – Citywide campaigns produce better-quality officials than do district elections. District Election System A political subdivision, such as a state or city, is divided into districts, with each district electing one official. Supporters – More responsive to citizens and increases participation Diversity – Produces a council that more closely reflects the city’s racial and ethnic diversity

18. Cumulative Election System Allows individual voters to cast more than one ballot in the simultaneous election of several officials Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Election Systems At-Large vs. Cumulative Voting: The cumulative system allows voters to cast all their votes for a single candidate. At-Large System vs. District Election At-large council elections in Texas limited the political influence of ethnic and racial minorities, primarily African Americans and Latinos. Introduction of district elections led to the selection of city councils in most big cities that were more ethnically and racially diverse than before.

19. At-Large System vs. District Election Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Election Systems Late 1970s and early 1980s: Minority-rights groups used the VRA to force Dallas, Houston, San Antonio, El Paso, and Fort Worth to challenge at-large election systems as discriminatory against minority voters Forced many cities to abandon at-large election systems and to adopt district elections VRA – Voting Rights Act: Federal law designed to protect the voting rights of racial and ethnic minorities

20. Urban Policies Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Political scientist Paul E. Peterson divides urban public policies into three categories – developmental, redistributive, and allocational. Developmental Policies – Enhance the economic position of a community in its competition with other communities Redistributive Policies – Benefit low-income residents of an area Allocational Policies – Programs that are more or less neutral in their impact on the local economy Economic Factors Economic and political factors play an important role in policymaking. Example – Cities will often concentrate on developmental and allocational programs in order to enhance their tax bases and protect the local economy.

21. Budgetary Policy Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Texas cities generate revenue from – Property taxes Sales taxes Franchise fees Other sources Fiscal (budget) year 2011: the general-fund budget for the City of Houston was $2 billion

22. Revenue Sources for Texas Cities – Property Taxes Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Also known as the ad valorem property tax – A levy assessed on real property, such as houses, land, business inventory, and industrial plants Tax Exemptions – Property tax breaks to certain categories of taxpayers, such as homeowners, elderly residents, or disabled veterans Homestead Exemption: The most common exemption – Property tax reduction granted to homeowners on their principal residence

23. Revenue Sources for Texas Cities – Sales Taxes Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities The other major source of revenue for municipal governments in Texas – sales taxes on the retail sale of taxable items Cities may piggyback an extra 1 percent onto the state’s general sales tax rate of 6.25 percent Cities without transit authorities may seek voter approval to levy a ½ percent additional sales tax to reduce city or county property taxes or help fund law enforcement. Cities of 56,000 or more that do not want to swap property taxes for sales taxes can ask for voter approval of a ¼ percent sales tax to use for mass transit.

24. Revenue Sources for Texas Cities – Other Sources Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Franchise fees Permits and licenses Service charges (i.e., water and sewer service) Fines Borrowing Borrowing – Issuing bonds to cover the cost of capital improvements, such as construction of buildings, airports, roads, and utility plants

25. Tax Incentives – Used to promote economic growth Tax Increment Financing, Tax Abatements, and Enterprise Zones Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Enterprise Zone – Allows local government to designate certain areas in which private investors can receive property tax abatements, local sales tax rebates (refunds), and government-backed low-interest loans Tax Increment Financing – A local government promises to earmark increased property tax revenues generated by development in a designated area – a tax increment financing district – to fund improvements in the area, such as roads, parks, sidewalks, etc. Tax Abatement – Exempts property owners from local property taxes on new construction and improvements in a designated tax abatement district for a set period of time

26. Annexation and Suburban Development Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Annexation – A city extends its geographic boundaries by taking in adjacent unincorporated areas. Cities annex for three principal reasons – 1) Political benefits of a larger population 2) Prevent encirclement by other incorporated municipalities 3) Protect financial health to maintain their tax bases and financial health Utility Districts – Provide utilities such as water and sewer service to residents living in unincorporated urban areas City government will typically annex an entire utility district. Strategic Partnership Agreements (SPAs) – Limited-purpose annexation The utility district gives the city permission to collect sales taxes at retail businesses within the district but not property taxes.

27. Annexation and Suburban Development Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities The legislature and the governor have revised state laws dealing with extraterritorial jurisdiction (ETJ). Extraterritorial Jurisdiction (ETJ) – Authority to require conformity with city ordinances and regulations affecting streets, parks, utility easements, sanitary sewers, etc. Ring of land extending from one-half mile to five miles beyond the city-limits line

28. Land Use Regulations Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Historically, land use policies have been developmental. Instead of regulating land use, municipalities in the Lone Star State have promoted private development. City Governments have left decisions about land use policy to private interests (developers, investors, builders, realtors, and architects). Building Codes – Minimum standards for the types of materials used in construction, building design, and construction methods Housing Codes – Require all dwelling places in a city to meet certain standards of upkeep and structural integrity These codes are designed to promote the health, safety, and welfare of the community.

29. Land Use Regulations Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc Public Policies in Texas Cities Zoning and Planning – Governmental designation of tracts of land for industrial, commercial, or residential use is known as zoning. Supporters – Regulations help to create an orderly city. Critics – City planning is inefficient and potentially corrupt because it substitutes the judgments of bureaucrats for free-enterprise development. Deed Restrictions Private contractual agreements that limit what residential property owners can do with their houses and land Restrictions – Typically allow owners to use their property only for specified purposes Property Owners Association – Force property owners to observe certain standards and refrain from altering their property without the written approval of the neighborhood civic association’s architectural committee

30. Elite Theory (Elitism) Copyright @2012, 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc City Politics in Texas Political power is held by a small group of people who dominate politics by controlling economic resources. Big-City Politics – Before the mid-1970s, politics of the big cities in Texas fit the model of elite theory. Political Change – By the mid-1970s, the political game changed sufficiently to allow new forces to have an impact on the policy process. Pluralist Theory (Pluralism) Diverse groups of elites with differing interests compete with one another to control policy in various issue areas. In big-city Texas today, different groups are active on different issues, but no one group is able to dominate policymaking across issue areas.