1. Chapter 7 Free Black People in Antebellum America

2. I. Demographics of Freedom Three regions to consider –The North –The Upper South –The Deep South Most free blacks lived in the Upper South –Few in the Deep South Southern states made manumissions more difficult See Map 7-1

3. Demographics Free African Americans in 1860 –The North 226,152 –The Upper South224,963 –The Deep South 36,955 –Total488,070 –Total Population U.S. 26,957,471

4. II. The Jacksonian Era Transportation revolution –Steamboats Robert Fulton –Turnpikes and Canals National Road Erie Canal –Railroads

5. The Jacksonian Era (cont.) Market revolution –Commercial farming –Factory production –Reform movements –Universal white manhood suffrage

6. The Jacksonian Era (cont.) –Mass political parties Universal white manhood suffrage Democrats and Whigs –Economic nationalism »Adams, Clay, and the American System Nullification crisis, 1832-1833 –Andrew Jackson »State rights

7. The Jacksonian Era (cont.) Whig party, 1834-1852 –Anti-Jackson coalition –Nationalist approach to economy Protective tariff National bank Federal monies for internal improvements –Opposed territorial expansion –Endorsed evangelical Protestantism Reforms

8. III. Limited Freedom in the North Black laws –Few black men voted –Segregation Housing, schools, transportation, employment Fugitive slave law, 1793 –Seized and returned to slaveholder –Kidnapped and enslaved free blacks Vigilance in the black community

9. Limited Freedom in the North (cont.) Black laws –Anglo-Saxon traits lacking in other races Black people inferior and incapable –Prohibit or restrict free African-Americans from entering their states –Prove freedom –Post bond

10. Limited Freedom in the North (cont.) Disfranchisement –Common in the North Except New England –Property qualifications to deny right to vote Strongest in the Old Northwest –Universal manhood suffrage evolved from one of class to one of race –Before Civil War, ninety-three percent of northern blacks live in states where right to vote was either denied or severely limited

11. Limited Freedom in the North (cont.) Segregation –Exclusionary legislation in Old Northwest Pervasive discrimination victimized all Hotels, taverns, public transportation –Atmosphere of hate caused African Americans to distrust white people »Ghettos »Boston ~ “Nigger Hill” »Cincinnati ~ “Little Africa” »Southern visitors argued blacks better off as slaves

12. IV. Black Communities: The Urban North Urban neighborhoods –Resilient families –Poverty –Class divisions –Church and volunteer organizations –Education –See Table 7-2

13. Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Black family –Variety Two-parent households common in 1820 Single-parent trend became increasingly common –Headed by women »High male mortality rate »Employment opportunities Financial need encouraged boarders –Extended families

14. Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Employment –Rising European immigration filled jobs –Young black men excluded from apprenticeships –Violence used against employers –Led to deskilling of blacks Menial labor Low wages Unemployment common

15. Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Black elite –Ministers, doctors, lawyers, and undertakers Carpenters, barbers, waiters, and coachman –Black institutions and culture –Anti-slavery movement –Racial justice –Bridge to sympathetic white people

16. Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Black professionals –Physicians James McCune Smith, John S. Rock, Martin R. Delaney –Attorneys Macon B. Allen, Robert Morris –Artists and musicians Robert S. Duncanson, Patrick Reason, Edmonia Lewis, Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield –Authors Frederick Douglass, William Nell, William Wells Brown

17. V. African-American Institutions First appeared during the revolutionary era, then increased and multiplied. –Schools –Mutual aid organizations –Benevolent and fraternal organizations –Newspapers and journals –Theaters

18. African-American Institutions (cont.) Black churches –Spoke against slavery and racial oppression –Many remained affiliated with white churches –Many northern blacks attended white churches Segregated, separate Sunday schools for black children Took communion after white people African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) –17,000 members in U.S. and Canada

19. African-American Institutions (cont.) Public schools –Tax-supported public schools started in Massachusetts in 1827 Racially segregated in the North between 1820- 1860 Believed black children lacked mental capacity Lowered the quality of education Feared black students attracted more blacks to district Many black children excluded from public schools

20. African-American Institutions (cont.) –Whites people were reluctant to spend tax dollars on black public schools Lack of funds meant poor education or none at all White teachers paid less for teaching in black schools Black leaders divided over segregated schools –1845 Massachusetts public schools integrated, except Boston »Boston integrated in 1855 »Some progress in smaller districts in the North »Most school in the North, however, remained segregated Colleges –By 1860, most northern colleges admitted black applicants

21. African-American Institutions (cont.) Voluntary associations –Mutual aid societies attractive to women –Black Odd Fellows –Prince Hall Masons Evangelical Protestantism and reforms –Literary Phoenix Literary Society –Temperance Middle class Helped unite black communities

22. VI. Free Blacks: The Upper South Family ties to slaves –Increased suffering for those enslaved –The sale south of friends and loved ones –Gained a reputation for harboring fugitives Greater risk of being enslaved –An assumption of slavery in most states Problems traveling, congregating, owning firearms –Greater exclusion than northern counterparts Hotels, trains, parks, hospitals, etc.

23. Free Blacks: The Upper South (cont.) Employment –Urban areas before 1850 Less competition from European immigrants Most free black men were unskilled laborers or waiters Most free black women washed clothes or worked as domestic servants Schools –No racial integration and no public funding Most black children received no formal education Churches and individuals provided sporadic opportunities

24. VII. Free Blacks: The Deep South No revolutionary rhetoric nor changing economy Fewer manumissions –Usually mixed-race children Three-caste system in Deep South –Whites, free blacks, and slaves –Strong ties between free blacks and former masters Loans, jobs, and protection cemented this bond Better off economically than free black people in other regions Half live in cities –Stronger position in skilled trades Increased conflict and tension among white skilled workers

25. VIII. Conclusion Life for free black people in the Upper and Deep South more difficult than in the North –Presumption of slavery –More restrictive laws