1. Elements of Literature:
Theme, Irony, Ambiguity, and Symbols

2. What Is Theme?
Theme—the central idea, or insight, about life or human behavior that a story reveals
Living a simple life leads to greater personal freedom.
Even one small person can make a difference.

3. Theme (cont.) In most stories, the theme is not stated directly.
Instead, it is revealed to us through the characters’ experiences.

4. Universal Themes
Different writers from different cultures often express similar themes.
A theme is a generalization about life or human nature.
Certain types of experiences are common to all people everywhere.

5. Universal Themes Universal themes
come up again and again in literature
deal with basic human concerns—good and evil, life and death, love and loss
shine a light on our common experiences
can help guide us through our lives

6. Finding the Theme The theme is not the same thing as the subject.
The subject is simply the topic. It can be stated in a single word, such as loyalty.
The theme should be expressed in a sentence: “Loyalty to a leader is not always noble.”
Writers often express theme through what their characters learn.
Does the main character change?

7. How Do We Find the Theme? Sometimes the title gives clues.
Does the title have a special meaning?
Conflict helps reveal theme.
How is the conflict resolved?
The theme applies to the entire work.
Test your statement of the theme. Does it apply to the whole work, not just parts of it?

8. Irony
Irony is the difference between what we expect or what seems suitable and what actually happens.
Writers include irony in stories to reflect the real world—a world where expectations aren’t always fulfilled and unexpected events often surprise us.

9. Irony In stories, we find three kinds of irony.
Verbal irony occurs when someone says one thing but means the opposite.
Situational irony occurs when an event is not just surprising but actually contrary to what we expected.
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or the reader knows something important that the character does not know.

10. Ambiguity Ambiguity is an element of uncertainty in a text.
Ambiguous texts offer several conflicting consequences or meanings that readers must sort out.

11. Ambiguity A story with an ambiguous ending or theme
keeps us wondering about what it means
tends to stick in our memory

12. What Is a Symbol?
A symbol is an ordinary object, event, person, or animal to which we have attached a special meaning.

13. Where Do We Get Symbols?
Public symbols are widely known and have been handed down over time.
Invented symbols come about when writers make a character, object, or event stand for some human concern.

14. Symbols in Literature Writers use symbols to:
suggest layers of meaning that a simple, literal statement could never convey
speak more powerfully to the reader’s emotions and imagination
make their stories rich and memorable

15. Allegory
Allegory—a story in which characters, setting, and actions stand for something beyond themselves, such as
abstract ideas, moral qualities, or historical figures or events
can be read on two levels: literal and symbolic

16. Allegory Literal meaning the story that takes place on the surface
uses interesting characters and plot to hold the reader’s attention
Symbolic, or allegorical, meaning
the story that takes place beneath the surface
uses characters and events to represent ideas such as love, freedom, evil, or goodness