1. Chapter 3 Planning and Managing the Project Shari L. Pfleeger Joanne M. Atlee 4 th Edition

2. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.2 Contents 3.1 Tracking Progress 3.2 Project Personnel 3.3 Effort Estimation 3.4 Risk Management 3.5 The Project Plan 3.6 Process Models and Project Management 3.7 Information System Example 3.8 Real Time Example 3.9 What this Chapter Means for You

3. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.3 Chapter 3 Objectives Tracking project progress Project personnel and organization Effort and schedule estimation Risk management Using process modeling with project planning

4. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.4 3.1 Tracking Progress Do we understand the customer’s needs? Can we design a system to solve the customer’s problems or satisfy customer’s needs? How long will it take to develop the system? How much will it cost to develop the system?

5. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.5 3.1 Tracking Progress Project Schedule Describes the software-development cycle for a particular project by – enumerating the phases or stages of the project – breaking each phase into discrete tasks or activities to be completed Portrays the interactions among the activities and estimates the times that each task or activity will take

6. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.6 3.1 Tracking Progress Project Schedule: Approach Understanding customer’s needs by listing all project deliverables – Documents – Demonstrations of function – Demonstrations of subsystems – Demonstrations of accuracy – Demonstrations of reliability, performance or security Determining milestones and activities to produce the deliverables

7. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.7 3.1 Tracking Progress Milestones and Activities Activity: takes place over a period of time Milestone: completion of an activity -- a particular point in time Precursor: event or set of events that must occur in order for an activity to start Duration: length of time needed to complete an activity Due date: date by which an activity must be completed

8. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.8 3.1 Tracking Progress Project Schedule (continued) Project development can be separated into a succession of phases which are composed of steps, which are composed of activities

9. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.9 3.1 Tracking Progress Project Schedule (continued) Table 3.1 shows the phases, steps and activities to build a house – landscaping phase – building the house phase Table 3.2 lists milestones for building the house phase

10. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.10 3.1 Tracking Progress Phases, Steps, and Activities in Building a House

11. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.11 3.1 Tracking Progress Milestones in Building a House

12. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.12 3.1 Tracking Progress Work Breakdown and Activity Graphs Work breakdown structure depicts the project as a set of discrete pieces of work Activity graphs depict the dependencies among activities – Nodes: project milestones – Lines: activities involved

13. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.13 3.1 Tracking Progress Work Breakdown and Activity Graphs (continued) Activity graph for building a house

14. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.14 3.1 Tracking Progress Estimating Completion Adding estimated time in activity graph of each activity to be completed tells us more about the project's schedule

15. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.15 3.1 Tracking Progress Estimating Completion for Building a House

16. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.16 3.1 Tracking Progress Critical Path Method (CPM) CPM: Shows the minimum amount of time it will take to complete a project – Reveals those activities that are most critical to completing the project on time Real time (actual time): estimated amount of time required for the activity to be completed Available time: amount of time available in the schedule for the activity's completion Slack time: the difference between the available time and the real time for that activity

17. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.17 3.1 Tracking Progress Critical Path Method (CPM) (continued) Critical path: the slack at every node is zero – can be more than one in a project schedule Slack time = available time – real time = latest start time – earliest start time

18. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.18 3.1 Tracking Progress Slack Time for Activities of Building a House

19. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.19 3.1 Tracking Progress CPM Bar Chart Including information about the early and late start dates Asterisks indicate the critical path

20. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.20 3.1 Tracking Progress Tools to Track Progress Example: to track progress of building a communication software

21. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.21 3.1 Tracking Progress Tools to Track Progress: Gantt Chart Activities shown in parallel – helps understand which activities can be performed concurrently

22. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.22 3.1 Tracking Progress Tools to Track Progress: Resource Histogram Shows people assigned to the project and those needed for each stage of development

23. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.23 3.1 Tracking Progress Tools to Track Progress: Expenditures Tracking An example of how expenditures can be monitored

24. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.24 3.2 Project Personnel Key activities requiring personnel – requirements analysis – system design – program design – program implementation – testing – training – maintenance – quality assurance There is great advantage in assigning different responsibilities to different people

25. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.25 3.2 Project Personnel Choosing Personnel Ability to perform work Interest in work Experience with – similar applications – similar tools, languages, or techniques – similar development environments Training Ability to communicate with others Ability to share responsibility Management skills

26. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.26 3.2 Project Personnel Communication A project's progress is affected by – degree of communication – ability of individuals to communicate their ideas Software failures can result from breakdown in communication and understanding

27. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.27 3.2 Project Personnel Communication (continued) Line of communication can grow quickly If there are n workers in a project, then there are n(n- 1)/2 pairs of communication lines

28. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.28 3.2 Project Personnel Sidebar 3.1 Make Meeting Enhance Project Progress Common complains about meeting – the purpose is unclear – the attendees are unprepared – essential people are late or absent – the conversation veers away from its purpose – participants do not discuss, instead argue – decisions are never enacted afterward Ways to ensure a productive meeting – clearly decide who should be in the meeting – develop an agenda – have someone who tracks the discussion – have someone who ensures follow-up actions

29. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.29 3.2 Project Personnel Work Styles Extroverts: tell their thoughts Introverts: ask for suggestions Intuitive: base decisions on feelings Rational: base decisions on facts, options

30. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.30 3.2 Project Personnel Work Styles (continued) Horizontal axis: communication styles Vertical axis: decision styles

31. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.31 3.2 Project Personnel Work Styles (continued) Work styles determine communication styles Understanding work styles – help to be flexible – give information based on other's priorities Impacts interaction among customers, developers and users

32. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.32 3.2 Project Personnel Project Organization Depends on – backgrounds and work styles of team members – number of people on team – management styles of customers and developers Examples: – Chief programmer team: one person totally responsible for a system's design and development – Egoless approach: hold everyone equally responsible

33. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.33 3.2 Project Personnel Project Organization: Chief Programmer Team Each team member must communicate often with chief, but not necessarily with other team members

34. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.34 3.2 Project Personnel Project Organization (continued) Characteristics of projects and the suggested organizational structure to address them

35. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.35 3.2 Project Personnel Sidebar 3.2 Structure vs. Creativity Experiment by Sally Phillip examining two groups building a hotel – structured team: clearly defined responsibilities – unstructured team: no directions The results are always the same – Structured teams finish a functional Days Inn – Unstructured teams build a creative, multistoried Taj Mahal and never complete Good project management means finding a balance between structure and creativity

36. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.36 3.3 Effort Estimation Estimating project costs is one of the crucial aspects of project planning and management Estimating cost has to be done as early as possible during the project life cycle Types of costs – facilities: hardware, space, furniture, telephone, etc – software tools for designing software – staff (effort): the biggest component of cost

37. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.37 3.3 Effort Estimation Estimation Should be Done Repeatedly Uncertainty early in the project can affect the accuracy of cost and size estimations

38. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.38 3.3 Effort Estimation Sidebar 3.3 Causes of Inaccurate Estimates Key causes – Frequent request for change by users – Overlooked tasks – User's lack of understanding of the requirements – Insufficient analysis when developing estimates – Lack of coordination of system development, technical services, operations, data administration, and other functions during development – Lack of an adequate method or guidelines for estimating

39. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.39 3.3 Effort Estimation Sidebar 3.3 Causes of Inaccurate Estimates (continued) Key influences – Complexity of the proposed application system – Required integration with existing system – Complexity of the program in the system – Size of the system expressed as number of functions or programs – Capabilities of the project team members – Project team's experience with the application, the programming language, and hardware – Capabilities of the project team members – Database management system – Number of project team members – Extent of programming and documentation standards

40. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.40 3.3 Effort Estimation Type of Estimation Methods Expert judgment Top-down or bottom-up – Analogy: pessimistic (x), optimistic (y), most likely (z); estimate as (x + 4y + z)/6 – Delphi technique: based on the average of “secret” expert judgments Algorithmic methods: E = (a + bS c ) m(X) – Walston and Felix model: E = 5.25 S 0.91 – Bailey and Basili model: E = 5.5 + 0.73 S 1.16

41. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.41 3.3 Effort Estimation Expert Judgement: Wolverton Model Two factors that affect difficulty – whether problem is old (O) or new (N) – whether it is easy (E) or moderate (M)

42. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.42 3.3 Effort Estimation Algorithmic Method: Watson and Felix Model A productivity index is included in the equation There are 29 factors that can affect productivity – 1 if increases the productivity – 0 if no effect – -1 if decrease the productivity

43. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.43 3.3 Effort Estimation Watson and Felix Model Productivity Factors

44. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.44 3.3 Effort Estimation Algorithmic Method: Bailey-Basili technique Minimize standard error estimate to produce an equation such as E = 5.5 + 0.73S 1.16 Adjust initial estimate based on the difference ratio – If R is the ratio between the actual effort, E, and the predicted effort, E’, then the effort adjustment is defined as – ER adj = R – 1 if R > 1 = 1 – 1/R if R < 1 Adjust the initial effort estimate E adj – E adj = (1 + ER adj )E if R > 1 = E/(1 + ER adj ) if R < 1

45. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.45 3.3 Effort Estimation Algorithmic Method: Bailey-Basili Modifier

46. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.46 3.3 Effort Estimation COCOMO Model Introduced by Boehm in 1981 COCOMO II – updated version – include models of reuse The basic models – E = bS c m(X) – where bS c is the initial size-based estimate m(X) is the vector of cost driver information

47. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.47 3.3 Effort Estimation COCOMO II: Stages of Development Application composition – prototyping to resolve high-risk user interface issues – size estimates in object points Early design – to explore alternative architectures and concepts – size estimates in function points Post architecture – development has begun – size estimates in lines of code

48. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.48 3.3 Effort Estimation COCOMO II: Stages of Development (continued)

49. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.49 3.3 Effort Estimation COCOMO II: Application Point Complexity Levels To compute application points – Count the number of screens, reports and the third-generation language components used to determine the complexity level – Classify each application element as simple, medium, or difficult 8 +mediumdifficult 4 +mediumdifficult

50. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.50 3.3 Effort Estimation COCOMO II: Estimate Application Point (continued) Determine the relative effort required to implement a report or screen as simple, medium or difficult Calculate the productivity factor based on developer experience and capability Determine the adjustment factors expressed as multipliers based on rating of the project

51. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.51 3.3 Effort Estimation COCOMO II: Estimate Application Point (continued) The number used for simple, medium or difficult points is a complexity weight as follows Sum the weighted reports and screens to obtain a single application point number New application points = (application points) x (100 – r)/100 where r is percent of the reused objects Object typeSimpleMediumDifficult Screen 123 Report 258 3GL component -- 10

52. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.52 3.3 Effort Estimation Productivity Estimate Calculation To compute effort estimation, an adjustment factor, productivity rate, based on developers experience and capability, but also CASE maturity, will be used

53. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.53 3.3 Effort Estimation Tool Use Categories Similarly, cost driver categories (multipliers) for tool use may be used to further adjust the efforts

54. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.54 3.3 Effort Estimation Machine Learning Techniques Example: case-based reasoning (CBR) – user identifies new problem as a case – system retrieves similar cases from repository – system reuses knowledge from previous cases – system suggests solution for new case Example: neural network – cause-effect network “trained” with data from past history

55. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.55 3.3 Effort Estimation Machine learning techniques: Neural Network Neural network used by Shepperd to produce effort estimation

56. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.56 3.3 Effort Estimation Machine Learning Techniques: CBR Involves four steps – the user identifies a new problem as a case – the system retrieves a similar case from a repository of historical information – the system reuses knowledge from the previous case – the system suggests a solution for the new case Two big hurdles in creating successful CBR system – characterizing cases – determining similarity

57. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.57 3.3 Effort Estimation Finding the Model for Your Situation Mean magnitude of relative error (MMRE) – absolute value of mean of [(actual - estimate)/actual] – goal: should be.25 or less Pred(x/100): percentage of projects for which estimate is within x% of the actual – goal: should be.75 or greater for x =.25 – 75% project estimates are within 25% of actual

58. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.58 3.3 Effort Estimation Evaluating Models No model appears to have captured the essential characteristics and their relationships for all types of development

59. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.59 3.3 Effort Estimation Evaluating Models (continued) It is important to understand which types of effort are needed during development even when we have a reasonably accurate estimate – Categorize and save the results Two different reports of effort distribution from different researchers

60. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.60 3.4 Risk Management What is a Risk? Risk is an unwanted event that has negative consequences Distinguish risks from other project events – Risk impact: the loss associated with the event – Risk probability: the likelihood that the event will occur Quantify the effect of risks – Risk exposure = (risk probability) x (risk impact) Risk sources: generic and project-specific

61. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.61 Top-10 SW Development Risks (Boehm)

62. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.62 Top-10 SW Development Risks (Boehm)

63. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.63 Top-10 SW Development Risks (McConnell) http://www.construx.com/Sample_Top_10_Risks_List/ 1.Creeping requirements 1.User interface prototype used to gather high-quality requirements. 2.Requirements specification has been placed under explicit change control. 3.Staged delivery approach will be employed to provide some ability to change features if needed. 2.Requirements or developer gold-plating 3.Released software has low quality 4.Unachievable schedule 5.Unstable tools delay schedule 6.High turnover 7.Friction between developers and customers 8.Unproductive office space

64. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.64 3.4 Risk Management Risk Management Activities

65. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.65 Example of risk exposure calculation – PU: probability of an unwanted outcome – LU: lost associated with an unwanted outcome 3.4 Risk Management Risk Management Activities (continued)

66. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.66 3.4 Risk Management Risk Management Activities (continued) Three strategies for risk reduction – Avoiding the risk: change requirements for performance or functionality – Transferring the risk: transfer to other system, or buy insurance – Assuming the risk: accept and control it Cost of reducing risk – Risk leverage = (risk exposure before reduction) – (risk exposure after reduction) / (cost of risk reduction)

67. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.67 3.4 Risk Management Sidebar 3.4 Boehm’s Top Ten Risk Items Personnel shortfalls Unrealistic schedules and budgets Developing the wrong functions Developing the wrong user interfaces Gold-plating Continuing stream of requirements changes Shortfalls in externally-performed tasks Shortfalls in externally-furnished components Real-time performance shortfalls Straining computer science capabilities

68. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.68 3.5 Project Plan Project Plan Contents Project scope Project schedule Project team organization Technical description of system Project standards and procedures Quality assurance plan Configuration management plan Documentation plan Data management plan Resource management plan Test plan Training plan Security plan Risk management plan Maintenance plan

69. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.69 3.5 Project Plan Project Plan Lists List of the people in development team List of hardware and software Standards and methods, such as – algorithms – tools – review or inspection techniques – design language or representations – coding languages – testing techniques

70. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.70 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Two case studies in project management DEC’s Alpha AXP System The US Air Force/Lockheed Martin

71. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.71 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Enrollment Management Model: Digital Alpha AXP Establish an appropriately large shared vision Delegate completely and elicit specific commitments from participants Inspect vigorously and provide supportive feedback Acknowledge every advance and learn as the program progresses

72. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.72 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Digital Alpha AXP (continued) Vision: to “enroll” the related programs, so they all shared common goals

73. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.73 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Digital Alpha AXP (continued) An organization that allowed technical focus and project focus to contribute to the overall program

74. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.74 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Accountability modeling: Lockheed Martin Matrix organization – Each engineer belongs to a functional unit based on type of skill Integrated product development team – Combines people from different functional units into an interdisciplinary work unit Each activity tracked using cost estimation, critical path analysis, schedule tracking – Earned value a common measure for progress

75. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.75 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Accountability Modeling: Lockheed Martin (continued) Accountability model used in F-16 Project

76. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.76 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Accountability modeling: Lockheed Martin (continued) Teams had multiple, overlapping activities An activity map used to illustrate progress on each activity

77. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.77 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Accountability Modeling: Lockheed Martin (continued) Each activity's progress was tracked using earned value chart

78. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.78 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Anchoring (Common) Milestones Project management should be tightly integrated with the development process Life cycle objectives Objectives: Why is the system being developed? Milestones and schedules: What will be done by when? Responsibilities: Who is responsible for a function? Approach: How will the job be done, technically and managerially? Resources: How much of each resource is needed? Feasibility: Can this be done, and is there a good business reason for doing it? Life-cycle architecture: define the system and software architectures and address architectural choices and risks Initial operational capability: readiness of software, deployment site, user training

79. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.79 3.6 Process Models and Project Management Anchoring milestones (continued) The Win-Win spiral model suggested by Boehm is used as a supplement to the milestones

80. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.80 3.7 Information System Example Piccadilly System Using COCOMO II Three screens and one report – Booking screen: complexity simple, weight 1 – Ratecard screen: complexity simple, weight 1 – Availability screen: complexity medium, weight 2 – Sales report: complexity medium, weight 5 Estimated effort = 182 person-month

81. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.81 3.8 Real Time Example Ariane-5 System The Ariane-5 destruction might have been prevented had the project managers developed a risk management plan – Risk identification: possible problem with reuse of the Ariane-4) – Risk exposure: prioritization would have identified if the inertial reference system (SRI) did not work as planned – Risk control: assessment of the risk using reuse software – Risk avoidance: using SRI with two different designs

82. Pfleeger and Atlee, Software Engineering: Theory and PracticeChapter 3.82 3.7 What this Chapter Means for You Key concepts in project management – Project planning – Cost and schedule estimation – Risk management – Team Organization Project planning involves input from all team members Communication path grows as the size of the team increases and needs to be taken into account when planning and estimating a schedule