1. P S Y C H O L O G Y T h i r d E d i t i o n by Drew Westen PowerPoint  Presentation C h a p t e r 7 T H O U G H T & L A N G U A G E John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2. Lecture Outline n Units of Thought n Problem Solving n Implicit Thought n Language n Language Development © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3. Thought n Thought is an extension of perception and memory  We form mental representations  We recall representations using memory  We mentally manipulate the representations to achieve some purpose  Thinking can involve words or images © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4. Mental Rotation Study n Subjects are shown a stimulus (e.g. “R”) that is rotated between 0 and 360 o, each must decide whether the letter is normal or a mirror image n Such tasks activate the visual cortex, suggesting an actual rotation of the stimulus © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

5. Mental Models n Mental models involve a representation that describes or explains how things work n Examples include:  Our model of the synapse  Our understanding of how cars work  Our model of memory systems (STM, LTM) © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

6. Concepts and Categories n Objects are classified on the basis of their properties  Categories: natural groupings based on common properties  Concept: a mental representation of a category “Cat”: small, hairy, and independent creature © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

7. Processes of Categorization n Categorization involves recognizing an object as a member of a category n We categorize objects by  Comparison with defining features Clearly defined (salt) vs “fuzzy” (“honest”)  Similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes Prototypes are a model based on abstraction of the characteristics of the category Can be a visual shape or verbal characteristics n Categories are organized in hierarchies  Basic level to subordinate level © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

8. Multiple Aspects of Categorization © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

9. Reasoning n Inductive: reason from specific observations to general propositions n Deductive: drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions  The conclusion is true if the premises are true  Syllogism is a set of formal statements used in deductive reasoning. Comprised of 2 premises and a conclusion © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

10. Syllogism Examples Premise: All A are B Premise: C is an A Therefore: C is a B © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All men are mortal Socrates is a man Socrates is mortal

11. Problem Solving n Problem solving refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal n Problems vary by definition:  Well-defined versus ill-defined n Strategies of problem solving:  Algorithms are systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a problem  Hypothesis testing: make an educated guess about a problem; then test it  Mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

12. Overview of Problem Solving © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

13. Impediments to Problem-Solving n Functional fixedness: our tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses  E.g. the candle and box problem n Confirmation bias: we seek to confirm what we already believe  This form of bias may be a difficulty for “experts” in a field © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

14. Everyday Thought n Implicit thinking examines unconscious thought processes (as opposed to conscious or explicit thought) n Examples of implicit thought include:  Classical conditioning of motivation We avoid persons who resemble others who have been obnoxious toward us  Unconscious psychodynamic motives Notion that children seek persons who have the characteristics of their parents © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

15. Heuristics n Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that allow us to make decisions (may border on irrational)  Representative heuristic: we match an object to its category, but don’t process how likely the match is  Availability heuristic: we decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical “Driving to Grandma’s house is safer than flying to Iraq…” © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

16. Connectionist Models of Thought n Connectionism assumes that  thought processing occurs in parallel  the meaning of a symbol is distributed throughout the brain  the connections between nodes have different weights Direct observations may have greater weight © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

17. Frontal Cortex and Thought n The frontal lobes are critical for the processing of thought n Dorsolateral prefrontal region: damage here leads to impaired planning, more distractability, and deficits in working memory n Ventromedial prefrontal region: damage here interrupts connections to the limbic system and results in mood swings, loss of social inhibition, and changes in personality e.g. the case of Phineas Gage  Ventromedial prefrontal damage impairs the feeling of emotion (no visceral reaction to disturbing images) © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

18. Overview of Prefrontal Cortex © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Ventral view of BrainDorsal view of Brain

19. Language n A language is a system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination that allows for communication among humans  Phonemes: the smallest units of sound  Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning  Phrases are composed of morphemes  Sentences: strings of morphemes and phrases that express a thought or intention © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

20. Syntactic Sentence Analysis © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

21. Nonverbal Communication n Nonverbal communication includes:  vocal intonation  body language (crossed arms)  gestures (often involving the hands or fingers)  physical distance  facial expressions  touch © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

22. Language Development n The case for nurture:  B.F. Skinner argued that children imitate the utterances of their parents Skinner suggests that children receive differential reinforcement for speech sounds n The case for nature:  Chomksy argued that language acquisition appears to be universal across culture (could not be accounted for by learning) © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

23. Critical Periods for Language Acquisition n Critical periods assume that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all  Children easily learn second languages, adults have great difficulty  Isolated children have language impairments: Genie: was isolated as a child and was unable to learn complex language as an adolescent © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

24. Copyright Copyright 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.