1. Theme 7 – Radioactive Decay ASTR 101 Prof. Dave Hanes

2. Understanding Atoms As we saw earlier, they are mostly empty space! One implication: atoms can be crushed down to much denser states – hence neutron stars, a trillion times as dense as water! (Learn more in ASTR 102.)

3. Meet the Nuclear Players The neutrons and protons are just about equally massive (and about 2000x as heavy as the distributed electrons). [The actual structure is more complex than that, and involves quarks that make up the neutrons and protons. We will not need to explore that.]

4. Atomic Number (Z) Z = number of protons in the nucleus. Hydrogen = 1 proton Helium = 2 protons Carbon = 6 protons Oxygen = 8 protons Uranium = 92 protons

5. Why Z Matters Chemically Z determines the number of surrounding electrons, and thus how it bonds chemically with other elements That’s why hydrogen behaves as hydrogen!

6. Atomic Mass Number But nuclei can also contain neutrons [The mass of the neutron ~ the mass of the proton.] Number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic mass number

7. Isotopes [‘Iso’ = same] Adding neutrons changes the mass but not the fundamental type of atom. Thus: Hydrogen has 1 proton 1 proton + 1 neutron = ‘heavy’ hydrogen (a.k.a. deuterium). Found in ‘heavy water.’ 1 proton + 2 neutrons = ‘even heavier hydrogen’ (tritium)

9. How Many Isotopes Can There Be? Are there only three hydrogens (ordinary; deuterium; tritium)? Or could there be, say, a ‘super-heavy’ hydrogen, with 1 proton and 50 neutrons? Or could there perhaps be an‘ultra-light’ uranium, with 92 protons and just 5 or 6 neutrons?

10. Apparently Not! Nuclei typically contain more neutrons than protons – but not usually twice as many. U 238 (shown by the red arrow) has 92 protons and 146 neutrons. C 14 (the blue arrow) has 6 protons and 8 neutrons.

11. Radioactivity! Some isotopes of some nuclei are unstable, especially (but not only) the very heavy ones. They spontaneously break up, spitting out smaller pieces and releasing energy. As we will see, this is (a) a great tool for age dating (b) very useful in certain medical applications (c) a health hazard in some circumstances (d) important in determining a planet’s ‘heat budget’

12. Energy is Emitted in Two Forms 1. Kinetic energy (the energy of motion of the moving particles) 1. Radiant energy (the energy carried by penetrating radiation – gamma rays)

13. Generating Electricity by Heating [welcome to Pickering!] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fXYFQmR2j0

14. Three Kinds of Radioactivity Discovered by accident in the late 1800s, but not understood for many years So, called α, β, γ - alpha, beta, gamma rays [neutrons are sometimes also released] [neutrons are sometimes also released]

15. α, β, γ Different penetrating powers – but what are they?

16. Consider the Leftover Nucleus What’s left behind is not the same as it was! The nucleus transmutes to a different element or isotope. This helps us understand the bits that have come out!

17. I. Alpha Particle Decay Example: U 238  Th 234 + α When U 238 transmutes into Th 234, it emits an ‘alpha particle’ What has the U nucleus lost? 4 units of mass, of which 2 are protons. (U has 92 p; Th has 90) Conclusion: Alpha particles are helium nuclei!

18. Another Example: Plutonium Turns into Uranium

19. Helium on Earth …is mostly radiogenic, formed by radioactive rocks and trapped underground

20. II. Beta Particle Decay Example: Th 234  Pa 234 + β No mass is lost, but one extra proton appears. [Th has 90, Pa has 91.] How on Earth??? Sounds like magic!

21. Electric Charge is Conserved [Another Conservation Law] Within the nucleus, a brand new proton appeared, with a “+” charge. So there must be a new “-” to go with it! Here’s what happens: one neutron spits out an electron, and turns into a proton, in what is called beta decay. n  p (+) + e (-) (that is, n  p + β) Conclusion: The emitted beta particles are electrons! – but not part of the original ‘cloud’ surrounding the atom.

22. III. Gamma Rays These are light (not visible to the human eye: of much higher energy and shorter wavelength). Gamma rays can cause tissue damage, disrupting DNA in the chromosomes. This can be good (if targeted, used to kill cancerous tumour cells) This can be good (if targeted, used to kill cancerous tumour cells) or bad (if uncontrolled, causing leukemia, radiation sickness).

23. Radiation Therapy

24. A Series of Decays, in a Cascade to a Final Stable Daughter Product (U 238 finally ends up as stable lead Pb 206, but that’s the end!) A Series of Decays, in a Cascade to a Final Stable Daughter Product (U 238 finally ends up as stable lead Pb 206, but that’s the end!)

25. The Decays Take Place Over Time The atoms don’t all decay at once: a radioactive substance only gradually converts to a stable form. If we understand the rules that control this behaviour, we can use it as a clock.