1. Thought & Language

2. Thinking Thinking involves manipulating mental representations for a purpose. Thinking incorporates the use of: Words Mental Images –Visual representations Mental Models –Representations that describe, explain, or predict the way things work

3. Categories & Concepts We classify an object as to what it is and what it is not using categories and concepts Categories –Groupings based on common properties –External, and independent of, a given person Concepts –A mental representation of a category –Internal to a given individual

4. Categorization Categorization is the mental process of identifying an object as a member of a category Categorization involves the use of: –Defining features –Prototypes (abstraction across many instances of a category

5. One More Time Category –A grouping based on common prosperities (car) Categorization –The mental process of creating concepts (verb) Concept –One’s mental representation of a category (noun)

6. Hierarchies of Concepts Basic Level of categorization –The level people naturally tend to use –Cars Subordinate –More specific attributes than the basic level –Convertibles Superordinate –More abstract than the basic level –Motor vehicles (cars, motorcycles, trucks)

7. Reasoning –The process by which we generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs Inductive Reasoning –Specific observations to more general propositions Shamus is Irish and likes to eat fish All Irish like to eat fish Deductive Reasoning –General observations to more specific instances All Irish like to eat fish Shamus is Irish so I guess he must like to eat fish

8. Analogy Analogical reasoning involves comparing a novel situation to a familiar one –Compare a ride in Ferrari to a ride on a roller coaster Analogies & Metaphors –Analogy One thing is like another thing Iraq is like Vietnam –Metaphor More assertive than analogies. “All the world is a stage”

9. Problem Solving Problem solving refers to the process of transforming one situation into another to meet a goal Three components –Initial state What is –Goal state What we want it to be –Operators Mental and behavioral processes used to change things

10. Well and Ill defined Problems Well-defined problems –Initial state, goal, operators are easily determined I need to lose 15 pounds Ill-defined problems –Information needed to solve and the criteria for determining when the goal has been met are vague What do I need to do to fix my relationship with my partner?

11. Problem Solving Model Compare initial state with goal state –I weight 210 and want to get to 195 Identify possible operators –Exercise and diet Apply operators –Exercise and diet Continue using operators until the differences between the initial and goal states are achieved –Keep exercising and dieting until you reach 195

12. Problem Solving Strategies Algorithms –Systematic procedures that inevitably produce a solution to a problem –Often involve the use of computers –Guaranteed to find a solution so long as one exists Mental Simulation –Imagining the steps involved in solving a problem before actually taking action

13. Problems in Problem Solving Functional Fixedness –Fixating on one approach rather than looking at a problem with an open mind Confirmation Bias –Jumping to a conclusion regarding the nature of a problem

14. Decision Making Explicit Cognition –Decision making that is conscious and involves weighing the pros and cons of different alternatives to solving a problem Weighted Utility Value –Combines the importance of an attribute & how well an option satisfies it Expected Utility –Combines importance of an approach & the probability of obtaining the outcome

15. Problem Solving Shortcuts Heuristics –Cognitive shortcuts that allow rapid, efficient, but sometimes irrational judgments Representativeness Heuristic –Match a new situation to a prototype –Ignore the dissimilarities Availability Heuristic –We infer something will happen based on how easily it comes to mind –The quicker it comes to mind the more we assume it will happen this time

16. Bounded Rationality Bounded reality involves making good decisions based on the information that is actually available to us –Does not seek all possible information nor a perfect solution Limitations include –Realistic goals –Cognitive resources –Environmental demands

17. Implicit Cognition Implicit cognition – Cognition outside one’s awareness Implicit learning –We learn through observation but do not consciously analyze the learning –No explicit directions Implicit problem solving –Solution to a problem suddenly comes to us without conscious effort –We suddenly just see the solution

18. Accessing Risk Many of our everyday decisions involve emotional expectations and expected emotional responses Prospect Theory –Suggests that potential future losses have a greater impact than potential gains

19. Parallel Distributed Processing Parallel distributed processing (connectionist) model suggests –A perceived problem activates parallel cognitive processes within the brain –The connections between these parallel mental processes is the source of knowledge –We select a solution that satisfies as many constraints as possible

20. Neurobiology of Problem Solving Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved with: –Associating complex ideas –Allocating attention –Making plans –Forming and executing intentions Ventromedial prefrontal cortex –Emotional control over decision making –Many aspects of social functioning

21. Language Language is the system of –symbols –sounds –meaning –rules that constitutes the primary mode of communications among humans Linguistic Relativity –Suggests language shapes thought

22. Elements of Language Phonemes –Smallest unit of sound Morphemes –Smallest unit of meaning Phrases –Groups of words that act as a unit Sentences –Organized sequences of words that express a thought or intention A Are are next to The bananas are next to the peaches

23. Syntax & Semantics Syntax involves –The rules for organizing words and phrases –As aspect of grammar Semantics –Involves understanding what people say Pragmatics –The study of the way language is used and understood in everyday life Discourse –The way people ordinarily speak, hear, red and write

24. Nonverbal Communications Ways we communicate without the use of words Body language Touch Gestures Facial expressions Physical distance Dress