1. PSYA4 Research Methods
Qualitative Data

2. Starter
Imagine you are in the exam and they ask you to justify why you would use a particular inferential statistical test.
Write an answer based on each test given below:
Spearman’s rho
Chi-square
Mann-Whitney U
Wilcoxon T

3. Learning Objective Success Criteria
To understand how qualitative data is analysed by psychologists.
Complete page 32 of your booklet.
Read and highlight page 33 of your booklet.
Answer practice questions on qualitative data.
Success Criteria

4. Starter Answers You use chi-square...
...if the data have been put into categories, they are classified as nominal data. The results are independent in each cell. The appropriate inferential test to use is therefore a chi-square test (i.e. test of association, independent groups, nominal data).
You use Spearman’s rho...
...if a test of correlation is needed as the hypothesis predicted a correlation. The data involved ratings made by participants that are ordinal data. This means we should choose Spearman’s rho (i.e. test of correlation, ordinal/interval data).
You use Mann–Whitney...
...if a test of difference is required because the hypothesis predicts there will be a difference between the two groups. The design is independent groups, and the data were scores on a test (ordinal data). Therefore the Mann–Whitney test is suitable (test of difference, independent groups, ordinal data).
You use Wilcoxon...
...if a test of difference is required because the hypothesis predicts there will be a difference between the two conditions. The design is repeated measures as all participants were tested twice. The data were reaction times, which are interval data (a true zero), A Wilcoxon test was chosen (i.e. test of a difference, related groups, interval data).

5. Analysis & Interpretation of Qualitative Data
You are already very familiar with quantitative data (i.e. inferential testing, graphs etc).
For the exam you also need to know how to analyse and interpret qualitative data (i.e. anything in non-numerical form).

6. Page 298
Have a quick read over the ‘SOME KEY POINTS ABOUT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS’.
You will be tested in three minutes!!!!

7. Pairs Challenge
Why do qualitative researchers dislike quantitative data?
Why are qualitative methods more subjective?
How does the qualitative researcher collect subjective data?
How large is a qualitative data set compared to quantitative data sets?
What can qualitative data not be converted to?
How can you construct an explanation using qualitative data?
Results are not application to everyday life.
The results aim to represent the real world.
They ask broad questions that allow the respondent to answer in their own words. They may also observe the behaviour indirectly (through looking at other’s notes) or directly.
Very large results (but may be through small samples).
Cannot be reduced to numbers.
Look for similarities and differences, across different cases and times, different events and themes, in order to construct an explanation.

8. Pairs Challenge
Why do qualitative researchers dislike quantitative data?
Results are not application to everyday life.
Why are qualitative methods more subjective?
The results aim to represent the real world.
How does the qualitative researcher collect subjective data?
They ask broad questions that allow the respondent to answer in their own words. They may also observe the behaviour indirectly (through looking at other’s notes) or directly.
How large is a qualitative data set compared to quantitative data sets?
Very large results (but may be through small samples).
What can qualitative data not be converted to?
Cannot be reduced to numbers.
How can you construct an explanation using qualitative data?
Look for similarities and differences, across different cases and times, different events and themes, in order to construct an explanation.
Results are not application to everyday life.
The results aim to represent the real world.
They ask broad questions that allow the respondent to answer in their own words. They may also observe the behaviour indirectly (through looking at other’s notes) or directly.
Very large results (but may be through small samples).
Cannot be reduced to numbers.
Look for similarities and differences, across different cases and times, different events and themes, in order to construct an explanation.

9. Methods of Analysis
Qualitative researchers use a wide variety of methods, such as:
Content analysis
Discourse analysis
Studying written or oral discourses
Ethnography
Observing people in their natural setting
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
Understanding how people make sense of their own experiences.

10. Step 1 – Coding
This is the process of identifying categories, themes, phrases, or keywords in the data set.
If a psychologist was carrying out an observation he may identify a number of categories and then allocate an individual observer to analyse each one.
If a psychologist had conducted an interview, the researcher identifies a theme (e.g. being upset) and then analyses the entire script to find more examples of this theme.
Coding is a thoughtful process and not at all superficial. The categories or themes are decided upon in two ways:
Top-down approach (thematic analysis)
Bottom-up approach (grounded theory)

11. Step 2 – Analysing the data
Top-down approach (thematic analysis)
When you analyse the data you find themes and concepts by using an existing theory/explanation.
For example, the clinical characteristics of schizophrenia may be used as categories when coding self-descriptions of patients with schizophrenia.
Bottom-up approach (grounded theory)
When analysing the data the codes and categories emerge from the data. So codes remain grounded in the observations rather than being generated before the study.
You would use grounded theory in an area of psychology which is new or when developing new insights.

12. Step 3 – Summarising the Data
This is a process where it makes it possible to turn qualitative data into quantitative data.
Behavioural categories that are identified are listed and used later when summarising the data.
For examples, when analysing data the psychologist lists the themes or categories, or gives examples of behaviour within each category using quotes from participants or descriptions of typical behaviour in that category. The psychologist then counts the frequency of each occurrence, turning qualitative into quantitative data. The psychologist can then draw conclusions.

13. Things to consider – Validity and Reflexivity
Traditionally in psychology the quantitative approach is used to discover reality or truth about the world.
Validity is the measure of how much this has actually been achieved.
The qualitative approach denies the existence of one ‘true’ world; everyone has their own subjective experience.
Qualitative researchers therefore acknowledge the need for reflexivity; this is the ability to recognise that the researcher has their own attitudes and biases that have an influence on the research that they are conducting. The impact of reflexivity cannot be avoided, but should be monitored and reported.

14. Things to consider – Triangulation
Triangulation can be used to test the validity of qualitative research (i.e. comparing the current study to different studies of a similar event or person).
The studies are likely to use different methodology, and if the results agree then this will support the validity. If the results do not agree then further research is needed to gain a deeper understanding.
Reliability is a part of the validity of the study. To check reliability the researcher could conduct inter-rater reliability checks when more than one person is coding the data.

15. Can you..?
Complete the Can you..? questions on page 299.