1. Production and Operations Management
CHAPTER 9
Production and Operations Management
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2015 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
Describe the evolution from production to operations management.
Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing and mass customization.
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3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control and quality control.
Explain the use of PERT and Gantt charts to control manufacturing processes.
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4. SHAHID KHAN Flex-N-Gate
Moved from Pakistan to the U.S. at the age of 16.
After college, he got a job overseeing Flex-N-Gate.
Bought the company after two years and refined the production process
Now the company brings in over $3 billion in sales each year.
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5. NAME that COMPANY
Operations management in this hotel company includes restaurants that offer the finest in service, elevators that run smoothly, and a front desk that processes people quickly. It may include fresh-cut flowers in the lobbies and dishes of fruit in every room.
Name that company!
Company: Ritz-Carlton
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6. MANUFACTURING in the U.S.
LO 9-1
Some areas in the U.S. are experiencing economic growth while others are declining.
Manufacturing in the U.S. is so productive fewer workers are needed.
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
To start a discussion ask students: What items do companies in the United States produce?
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7. WHAT’S MADE in the USA? Leading U.S. Manufactured Goods
LO 9-1
Products
Value
Number of Employees
Chemicals – Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, soaps, paints, fertilizers
$250 Billion
830,000 Americans
Transportation Equipment – Cars, planes, trains, ships
$195 Billion
Over 1.4 Million Americans
Processed Foods, Beverages and Tobacco – Cookies, coffee, cigarettes, prepared meals
$175 Billion
1.7 Million Americans
Computers and Electronics – Computers and communication equipment
$146 Billion
1.2 Million Americans
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
This slide presents the leading goods manufactured in the United States.
Ask students: Why are the goods on the slide manufactured in the United States? (Students’ answers will vary but should focus on the abundance of certain factors of production and the United States’ comparative advantage in the production of capital intensive products, topics that were covered earlier in the text.)
To determine what goods are manufactured in a particular state use the Bureau of Economic Analysis website (
Source: Parade Magazine, accessed November 2014.
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8. MASSIVE MANUFACTURERS The Top Ten U.S. Manufacturers
LO 9-1
Rank
Company
Industry 1
Apple
Computers 2
Renewable Energy Group
Petroleum and Coal 3
Polaris Industries
Transportation 4
WABCO Holdings
Automobile Parts 5
Monster Beverage
Beverages 6
Deluxe Corporation
Publishing 7
Hershey Company
Food 8
Coach, Inc.
Apparel 9
CVR Energy 10
New Market Corporation
Chemicals
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
This slide presents the top ten manufacturers (based on revenues) according to Industry Week’s 2014 list of the 500 largest publicly held U.S. manufacturing companies.
Source: Industry Week, accessed November 2014.
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9. YOUR OWN FARM in a BOX
Freight Farms was developed after the founders were unsatisfied with rooftop greenhouses.
Each container is 320-square-feet and can produce 900 heads of leafy greens each week.
The company works with small and medium- sized food distributers so local food can be enjoyed year round.
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
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10. TOP-PAYING SERVICE JOBS
LO 9-1
The U.S. economy is no longer manufacturing based.
85% of jobs are in the service sector.
The top-paying service jobs in the U.S. are in:
Legal services
Medical services
Entertainment
Accounting
Finance
Management consulting
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
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11. REMAINING COMPETITIVE in GLOBAL MARKETS
U.S. is still the leader in nanotechnology and biotechnology.
How can U.S. businesses maintain a competitive edge?
Focusing on customers
Maintaining close relationships with suppliers
Practicing continuous improvement
Focusing on quality
Saving on costs through site selection
Relying on the Internet to unite companies
Adopting new production techniques
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
The famous economist Joseph Schumpeter believed in continuous improvement and discussed capitalism as a force for creative destruction. If the United States is to remain competitive, the nation as a whole must continually innovate eschewing old inefficient industries in favor of capital-intensive knowledge-driven industries.
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12. NOBODY DOES IT BETTER
Germany’s economy is the most powerful and respected economy in Europe.
Mittlestand companies design their own machines and production processes.
China has purchased many German firms and are studying their production techniques.
See Learning Goal 1: Describe the current state of U.S. manufacturing and what manufacturers have done to become more competitive.
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13. PRODUCTION and PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
LO 9-2
Production -- The creation of goods using land, labor, capital, entrepreneurship and knowledge (the factors of production).
Production Management -- All the activities managers do to help firms create goods.
See Learning Goal 2: Describe the evolution from production to operations management.
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14. OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
LO 9-2
Operations Management -- A specialized area in management that converts or transforms resources into goods and services.
Operations management includes:
Inventory management
Quality control
Production scheduling
Follow-up services
See Learning Goal 2: Describe the evolution from production to operations management.
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15. OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT in the SERVICE SECTOR
LO 9-2
All about creating a good experience for those who use the service.
In hotels, like Ritz- Carlton, operation management includes fine dining, fresh flowers, and training for every employee.
See Learning Goal 2: Describe the evolution from production to operations management.
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16. THERE’S an APP for THAT Top Productivity Apps for iPad
LO 9-2
App
What it Does
Price
Dropbox
Syncs and backs up files
Free
Dragon
Dictation services
Cubby
Easy and unlimited data syncing
GoToMyPC
Remote computer control
Air Display
Turns tablet into a second monitor
$9.99
See Learning Goal 2: Describe the evolution from production to operations management.
This slide shows the top iPad apps that help service businesses increase productivity.
Source: PC Magazine, accessed November 2014.
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17. TEST PREP
What have U.S. manufacturers done to regain a competitive edge?
What must U.S. companies do to continue to strengthen the country’s manufacturing base?
What led companies to focus on operations management rather than production?
Manufacturers have regained a competitive advantage by focusing on the following: The needs of customers, maintaining a close relationship with suppliers to make sure they are meeting customer needs, practicing continuous improvement, focusing on quality, saving on costs through better site selection, using new technologies, adopting new production techniques.
To strengthen the nation’s manufacturing base will require an adjustment and recognition of the new realities in manufacturing. This will require focusing on new technologies, such as the green ventures discussed in your textbook.
The nature of business has changed dramatically in the past twenty years forcing companies to focus on operations management. One change is the shift from a manufacturing economy to one dominated by the service industry. Operations management is a more specialized area of management that converts resources into useful outputs.
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18. The PRODUCTION PROCESS
LO 9-3
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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19. FORM UTILITY
LO 9-3
Form Utility -- The value producers add to materials in the creation of finished goods and services.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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20. GROVE’S BASIC PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS
LO 9-3
To build and deliver products in response to the demands of the customer at the scheduled delivery time.
To provide an acceptable quality level.
To provide everything at the lowest possible cost.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
Andrew Grove is the former chairman of computer chip manufacturer Intel.
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21. PROCESS and ASSEMBLY in PRODUCTION
LO 9-3
Process Manufacturing -- The part of production that physically or chemically changes materials.
Assembly Process -- The part of the production process that puts together components.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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22. KEY PRODUCTION PROCESSES
LO 9-3
Production processes are either continuous or intermittent.
Continuous Process -- Long production runs turn out finished goods over time.
Intermittent Process -- Production runs are short and the producer adjusts machines frequently to make different products.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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23. MINUTE MADE Production of Some of America’s Favorite Products
LO 9-3
Product
Number of Items
Made in a Minute
Krispy Kreme Doughnuts
5,208
Chips Ahoy! Cookies
4,000
Twinkies
972
Jello Boxes
764
LifeSavers
100 rolls
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
Minute Made
This slide presents the production efficiency of various products.
Before introducing this slide, it would be interesting to ask the students to take a guess: How many Krispy Kreme Doughnuts or Chips Ahoy! Cookies are made every minute?
Again it is important to reinforce the point that production efficiency directly translates into cost savings and therefore profits.
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24. DEVELOPMENTS MAKING U.S. COMPANIES MORE COMPETITIVE
Computer-aided design and manufacturing
Flexible manufacturing
Lean manufacturing
Mass customization
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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25. COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN and MANUFACTURING
LO 9-3
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) -- The use of computers in the design of products.
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) -- The use of computers in the manufacturing of products.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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26. COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
LO 9-3
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) -- The uniting of computer- aided design with computer- aided manufacturing.
CIM is expensive but it cuts as much as 80% of the time needed to program machines to make parts.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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27. FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING
LO 9-3
Flexible Manufacturing -- Designing machines to do multiple tasks so they can produce a variety of products.
Allen-Bradley uses flexible manufacturing to build motor starters.
26 machines and robots build, test and package parts.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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28. LEAN MANUFACTURING
LO 9-3
Lean Manufacturing -- Using less of everything than in mass production.
Compared to others, lean companies:
Take half the human effort.
Have half the defects in finished products.
Require one-third the engineering effort.
Use half the floor space.
Carry 90% less inventory.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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29. MASS CUSTOMIZATION
LO 9-3
Mass Customization -- Tailoring products to meet the needs of a large number of individual customers.
More manufacturers are learning to customize.
Mass customization exists in the service sector too.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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30. MAKE YOUR OWN KIND of MUSIC
Moniker Guitars produces top quality, personalized guitars for everyday people.
They follow a model similar to NikeiD and allows people to add whatever design elements they want – even tiger stripes!
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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31. ROBOTICS and SENSING
LO 9-3
The use of robotics allows manufacturing to continue 24 hours a day.
Sensors can detect problems immediately and changes can be made quickly.
Nanomanufacturing can manipulate on material on the molecular level.
See Learning Goal 3: Identify various production processes and describe techniques that improve productivity, including computer-aided design and manufacturing, flexible manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and mass customization.
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32. TEST PREP What is form utility?
Define and differentiate the following: process manufacturing, assembly process, continuous process and intermittent process.
What do you call the integration of CAD and CAM?
What is mass customization?
Form utility is the value producers add to materials in the creation of finished goods and services. For example, when a company transforms raw steel into the body of an automobile they are creating form utility.
Process manufacturing physically or chemically changes materials, such as turning sand into glass or computer chips. The assembly process puts together components to create a product. For example, cars are made through an assembly process that puts together the frame, engine and other parts. Continuous process involves long production runs turning out finished goods over time. For example, a plant that makes plastic cups is run on a continuous process. Rather than using long runs, an intermittent process involves short runs that respond directly to specific customer orders. An example of this process would include manufacturers of men’s custom business suits.
The integration of CAD and CAM is referred to as computer-integrated manufacturing or CIM.
Mass customization is the process of tailoring products to meet the demands of a large number of individual customers. One example of this process is NIKEiD which allows customers to design athletic shoes by choosing from a variety of colors and designs. For more information on this process go to
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33. OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
LO 9-4
Operations management planning helps solve problems like:
Facility location
Facility layout
Materials requirement planning
Purchasing
Inventory control
Quality control
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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34. FACILITY LOCATION
LO 9-4
Facility Location -- The process of selecting a geographic location for a company’s operations.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
Rising numbers of Internet businesses means brick-and-mortar retailers must find great locations.
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35. DO WE STAY or DO WE GO?
Potential of low-cost labor is very attractive to companies hoping to remain competitive.
However, shuttering operations and moving can often cause severe economic problems in dependent areas.
What would you do if you were the CEO of ChildrenWear Industries faced with this problem?
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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36. OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT on the INTERNET
LO 9-4
Sometimes businesses outsource engineering, design and manufacturing to other companies.
Often these relationships are managed through the Internet.
Many companies are developing Internet-focused strategies.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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37. FUTURE FACILITY LOCATION
Information technology gives firms increased flexibility in terms of location.
Telecommuting -- Working from home via computer.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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38. SETTING UP the FACILITY
LO 9-4
Facility Layout -- The physical arrangement of resources, including people, to most efficiently produce goods and provide services.
Facility layout depends on the processes performed:
Service: Help customers find products
Manufacturing: Improve efficiency
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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39. FACILITY LAYOUT OPTIONS
LO 9-4
Assembly Line Layout – Workers do only a few tasks at a time.
Modular Layout – Teams of workers produce more complex units of the final product.
Fixed-Position Layout – Allows workers to congregate around the product.
Process Layout – Similar equipment and functions are grouped together.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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40. ASSEMBLY LINE LAYOUT LO 9-4
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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41. MODULAR LAYOUT
LO 9-4
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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42. PROCESS LAYOUT
LO 9-4
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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43. FIXED-POSITION LAYOUT
LO 9-4
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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44. MRP and ERP
LO 9-4
Materials Requirement Planning (MRP) -- A computer-based operations management system that uses sales forecasts to make sure parts and materials are available when needed.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) -- A newer version of MRP, combines computerized functions into a single integrated software program using a single database.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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45. PURCHASING The Internet has transformed purchasing.
LO 9-4
Purchasing -- The function that searches for high-quality material resources, finds the best suppliers and negotiates the best price for goods and services.
The Internet has transformed purchasing.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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46. INVENTORY CONTROL
LO 9-4
Just-in-Time (JIT) Inventory Control -- The production process in which a minimum of inventory is kept and parts, supplies and other needs are delivered just in time to go on the assembly line.
To work effectively, the process requires excellent coordination with suppliers.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
A JIT system makes sure the right materials are at the right place at the right time at the cheapest cost to meet both customer and production needs.
To start a discussion with students ask the following question: While the benefits of the JIT system are obvious what are some of the drawbacks?
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47. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
QUALITY CONTROL
LO 9-4
Quality -- Consistently producing what the customer wants while reducing errors before and after delivery.
Six Sigma Quality -- A quality measure that allows only 3.4 defects per million opportunities.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
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48. 6σ The SIX SIGMA PROCESS Control Improve Analyze Measure Define LO 9-4
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
A Six-Sigma process ensures % of products are defect-free.
Measure
Define
Source: Bloomberg Businessweek, accessed November 2014.
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49. STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL & STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
LO 9-4
Statistical Quality Control -- A process used to continually monitor all phases of the production process.
Statistical Process Control -- A process of testing statistical samples of product components at each stage of production.
Measuring quality along the production process reduces the need for quality control at the end.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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50. The BALDRIGE AWARDS Companies can apply for awards in these areas:
LO 9-4
Companies can apply for awards in these areas:
Manufacturing
Services
Small Businesses
Non-Profit/Government
Education
Healthcare
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
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51. THE WINNERS ARE… 2014 Baldrige Award Recipients
LO 9-4
Company
Category
Where from?
Elevation Credit Union
Nonprofit
Boulder, CO
St. David’s HealthCare
Healthcare
Austin, TX
Hill County Memorial
Fredrickburg, TX
PricewaterhouseCoopers
Service
McLean, VA
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
This slide presents the 2014 Baldrige National Quality Award recipients.
Awardees included two healthcare institutions, one nonprofit, and one corporation honored for service.
3. To better understand the process have students spend time reviewing the website.
Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology, accessed November 2014.
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52. WHAT is ISO?
LO 9-4
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies.
ISO The common name given to quality management and assurance standards.
ISO A collection of the best practices for managing an organization’s impact on the environment.
See Learning Goal 4: Describe operations management planning issues including facility location, facility layout, materials requirement planning, purchasing, just-in-time inventory control, and quality control.
ISO is the world’s largest developer and publisher of international standards. The purpose of ISO is to form a bridge between the public and private sectors. ISO is based in Switzerland.
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53. TEST PREP What are the major criteria for facility location?
What’s the difference between MRP and ERP?
What’s just-in-time inventory control?
What are Six Sigma quality, the Baldrige Award, ISO 9000 and ISO 14000?
Managers must always consider the customer and the impact on customers’ ability to use the company’s services and to communicate about their needs. Other criteria that need to be considered include: labor costs, availability of resources, access to transportation, proximity to customers, suppliers, crime rates, quality of life for employees and the cost of living, to mention but a few.
Materials requirement planning or (MRP) is a computer-based operations management system that uses sales forecasts to make sure needed parts and materials are available at the right time and place. Enterprise resource planning (ERP), a newer version of MRP, combines the computerized functions of all the divisions and subsidiaries of the firm into a single integrated software program that uses a single database.
One major expense in the production process is the holding of parts. The goal of just-in-time inventory is to eliminate or reduce that cost. Just-in-time inventory systems keep a minimum of inventory on the premises and only deliver parts just as they are needed on the factory floor.
Six Sigma is a quality-control standard which sets a benchmark of no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities. The Baldrige Award was created in 1987 to promote a standard for overall quality in the following areas: manufacturing, services, small business, education, and health care. The award was named after Malcolm Baldrige, the late U.S. secretary of commerce. The International Organization for Standardization or ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies from more than 140 countries. This nongovernmental organization establishes global measures for the quality of individual products. ISO 9000 is the common name given to quality management and assurance standards, while ISO is a collection of the best practices for managing an organization’s environmental impact.
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54. PERT
LO 9-5
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) -- A method for analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project and estimating the time needed.
See Learning Goal 5: Explain the use of PERT and Gantt charts to control manufacturing processes.
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) was developed in the 1950s with the construction of the Navy’s Polaris submarine project.
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55. STEPS INVOLVED in PERT Analyzing and sequencing tasks
LO 9-5
Analyzing and sequencing tasks
Estimating the time needed to complete each task
Drawing a PERT network illustrating the first two steps
Identifying the critical path
Critical Path -- The sequence of tasks that takes the longest time to complete.
See Learning Goal 5: Explain the use of PERT and Gantt charts to control manufacturing processes.
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56. PERT CHART for a MUSIC VIDEO
LO 9-5
See Learning Goal 5: Explain the use of PERT and Gantt charts to control manufacturing processes.
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57. GANTT CHARTS
LO 9-5
Gantt Chart – A bar graph that shows what projects are being worked on and how much has been completed.
See Learning Goal 5: Explain the use of PERT and Gantt charts to control manufacturing processes.
Henri Gantt created the Gantt Chart which allows management to chart workflow and improve worker productivity. The Gantt Chat is the forerunner to PERT.
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58. GANTT CHART for a DOLL FACTORY
LO 9-5
See Learning Goal 5: Explain the use of PERT and Gantt charts to control manufacturing processes.
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59. TEST PREP
Draw a PERT chart for making breakfast of three- minute eggs, buttered toast and coffee. Define the critical path.
How could you use a Gantt chart to keep track of production?
To answer this question please refer to figure 9.3 in the textbook.
A Gantt chart is a scheduling mechanism used by manufacturers for measuring production progress. This chart will give management a clear idea as to the status of the project and how much has been completed at any given time.
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