2. WEATHER AND CLIMATE LECTURE 1

3. Atmosphere: Structure and Composition Atmosphere is made up of layers: 1. Troposhere - decreases by 6.4 degrees Celsius for every 1000m increase in height (Environmental Lapse Rate) - contains most of the water vapour, cloud, dust, pollution - tropopause: upper limit of the troposhere. - temperatures remain constant with height increase

4. Atmosphere: Structure and Composition 2. Stratosphere - steady increase in temp due to ozone concentration - winds increase with height - pressure decreases with height - stratopause: layer above stratosphere - no change in temp with increasing height

5. Atmosphere: Structure and Composition 3. Mesosphere - temperatures fall rapidly - no gases or particles present to absorb radiation - mesopause: layer above mesosphere where no change in temperature with height is seen

6. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET Before looking at the earth’s budget, let us see what happens to incoming solar radiation: 3 General Processes act upon incoming radiation: a) Absorption b) Radiation c) Reflection

7. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET Absorption. - by gases in the upper atmosphere as well as ice particles and dust Reflection. - by clouds and the earth’s surface back to space - dependent on the albedo of clouds and earth’s surface - gas molecules also scatter radiation back to space. The rest reaches surface by diffuse radiation (scattered energy)

8. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET Scattering and Diffuse Radiation Scattered insolation is either: Scattered Back to Space Absorbed by earth’s surface as diffuse radiation

9. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET Incoming radiation converted to heat energy - radiates back to the atmosphere - absorbed by water vapour/carbon dioxide to retain heat near the surface (Greenhouse Effect)

10. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET The amount of radiation the earth receives: A system of inputs and outputs Balances on the global level, but not necessarily so on a local scale

11. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET Eg: At night, no incoming radiation, yet heat is still lost, especially on cloudless days - at any one place and time, more radiant energy is being lost than gained, vice versa Heat Escapes to Space

12. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET This can be determined by the net radiation: difference between all incoming and outgoing radiation surplus: radiant energy flowing in faster than it is flowing out deficit: radiant energy flowing out faster than it is flowing in

13. HEAT/ENERGY BUDGET What prevents tropics from overheating? 1 Horizontal Heat Transfers - winds carry heat energy away from the tropics 2. Vertical Heat Transfers Radiation, conduction, convection and transfer of latent heat - supplementary reading

14. Factors Affecting Temperature Amount of insolation varies through time and space, and from point to point a) Long-term factors b) Short-term factors c) Local influences

15. Long-Term factors Height above sea-level - atmosphere heated from earth’s surface by conduction and convection - dependent on surface area of landmass Surface Atmosphere Conduction Warm, rising Air Convection - as heights increase on mountains, less land mass present to give off heat by above process, hence lower temperatures

16. Long-Term factors Height above sea-level - at the same time, pressure/density of air decreases with altitude - less air molecules present to absorb and retain heat, hence as air thins with altitude, temperatures decrease Decreasing Density of Air Molecules with Increasing Height Surface

17. Long-Term factors Altitude of the sun - temperatures decrease with decreasing angle of the sun Sun A B -Less loss of energy at A as ray at A travels a shorter distance than at B

18. Long-Term factors Sun A B Therefore, the higher the latitude (moving from Poles to Equator), the higher the temperatures, vice versa

19. Long-Term factors Nature of Surface (Land/sea) - Land and water differ in their abilities to absorb heat - specific heat capacity: the amount of energy needed to raise 1kg of a substance by 1 degree Celsius - water has a higher S.H.C. than land/soil

20. Long-Term factors Nature of Surface (Land/sea) - water requires more energy to raise its temperature by 1 degree Celsius as compared to continents - In summer, sea heats up more slowly than land - In winter, land loses energy more rapidly than the sea

21. Long-Term factors Nature of Surface (Land/sea) Illustration of different rates of energy gain/loss between land and water Swimming Pool on a hot day: - air temperatures warm - water seems to be ‘icy’ cold when you jump in A chilly afternoon immediately after a heavy rain: - air temperatures cool - water in the pool seems to be ‘nice and warm’

22. Long-Term factors Nature of Surface (Land/sea) - Continental areas therefore are more responsive to temperature changes as compared to water bodies - this is also why coastal areas have smaller annual temperature ranges than inner continents

23. Long-Term factors Prevailing winds - where winds come from - and characteristics of surface over which they blow Winter: - winds blowing from sea tend to be warmer - coastal areas experiencing such breezes will be warmer than areas not experiencing such breezes

24. Long-Term factors Prevailing winds Warmer Sea Breeze Cold Surface (Winter) Warms coastal areas. Warm wind eventually cools with distance into continents Inner Continents will be colder than coastal areas even if they may be within the same climatic region

25. Long-Term factors Ocean Currents Equator S. Pole N. Pole Warm Currents Cold Currents

26. Short-term factors Seasonal Changes - due to earth’s tilt, Northern Hemisphere receives more insolation during Summer solstice (21 June) than Southern Hemisphere - Northern Hemisphere receives less insolation during Winter Solstice (22 December) N S Earth’s axis on which it rotates not on the South Pole N S But is tilted at an angle

27. Short-term factors Equator Earth during Winter Solstice - Northern Hemisphere - less insolation (cooler ie Winter) - Southern Hemisphere - more insolation (warmer ie Summer)

28. Short-term factors Earth’s Elliptical Orbit around the sun therefore sets up the different seasons Summer Winter Spring Autumn

29. Short-term factors Length of Day and night - areas experiencing longer days tend to have higher temperatures Equator: - Equal lengths of day and night every 24 hours Poles: - experience 24 hours of darkness for parts of winter - during summer, experience up to 24 hours of day

30. Local Influences on Insolation Slope Aspect - northern hemisphere: north-facing slopes (adret) receive less sunshine - cooler than south-facing slopes (ubac) In addition, steeper slopes receive more insolation due to their higher angle of incidence

31. Local Influences on Insolation Cloud Cover - reduces both incoming and outgoing insolation - thicker cloud cover, more absorption, reflection, scattering and terrestrial radiation (radiation back to space) during daytime - cooler temperatures during day with thick cloud cover, higher with no/little cloud cover

32. Local Influences on Insolation Cloud Cover - Night: - Thick cloud cover during night time can act as an insulating blanket to trap heat - lack of cloud cover during the night, loss of heat from surface by terrestrial radiation, cool/cold temperatures

33. Local Influences on Insolation Urbanisation - alters the albedo of natural landscape - buildings, concrete and black roads tend to reflect less insolation and therefore absorb more heat - hence higher temperatures in urban areas than grass or natural landscape Finito