1. SIO 210: Dynamics II Momentum balance (no rotation) L
SIO 210: Dynamics II Momentum balance (no rotation) L. Talley Fall, 2015
Continuity (mass conservation) and Fick’s Law
Reading:
DPO ch. 5.1
Stewart chapter 7.7 (more formal)
Force balance
DPO ch. 7.1, 7.2 (skip 7.2.3)
Lecture emphasis: advection, pressure gradient force, eddy viscosity
Renamed from Dynamics I and file renamed from Dynamics_1 on 23 Oct. 2014
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

2. Equations for fluid mechanics (for the ocean)
Mass conservation (continuity) (no holes) (covered in previous lecture)
Force balance: Newton’s Law ( ) (3 equations)
Equation of state (for oceanography, dependence of density on temperature, salinity and pressure) (1 equation)
Equations for temperature and salinity change in terms of external forcing, or alternatively an equation for density change in terms of external forcing (2 equations)
7 equations to govern it all
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

3. Completed force balance (no rotation) (preview of coming attractions)
acceleration + advection =
pressure gradient force + viscous term + gravity
x: u/t + u u/x + v u/y + w u/z =
- (1/)p/x + /x(AHu/x) +
/y(AHu/y) +/z(AVu/z)
y: v/t + u v/x + v v/y + w v/z =
- (1/)p/y + /x(AHv/x) +
/y(AHv/y) +/z(AVv/z)
z: w/t + u w/x + v w/y + w w/z =
- (1/)p/z - g + /x(AHw/x) +
/y(AHw/y) +/z(AVw/z)
For physics-based students; class is not responsible for this full set of equations.
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

4. Review: coordinate systems
In this course we use Cartesian coordinates
For problems on the Earth surface, these are “local” coordinates, with (0,0,0) at local center of problem.
East = x with velocity u
North = y with velocity v
Vertical = z with velocity w (0 at sea surface)
For much larger scales, we use spherical coordinates. (Not in this course; almost always in atmospheric dynamics.) (Geophysicists are even more careful and use oblate spheroidal coordinates since Earth is slightly oblate.)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

5. Review: Coordinate system
Green: local Cartesian coordinate frame
x is East
y is north
z is up
Question for class: what is the cosine of 0? What is the cosine of 90 degrees?
Coordinate system: “East-North-Up”
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

6. Review: Continuity (conservation of volume): NO HOLES
Continuity in 1-D, 2-D, 3-D (at board)
1D: 0 = ∆u/∆x = ∂u/∂x
2D: 0 = ∆u/∆x + ∆v/∆y = ∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y
3D: 0 = ∆u/∆x + ∆v/∆y + ∆w/∆z = ∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y + ∂w/∂z
(Net convergence or divergence within the ocean results in mounding or lowering of sea surface, or within isopycnal layers, same thing) NO holes in the ocean
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

7. Review: Continuity
The in and out arrows can be through any face of the box.
For Mass Conservation, also include density at each face (mass transport)
∆u/∆x + ∆v/∆y + ∆w/∆z = 0
∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y + ∂w/∂z = 0
(equivalent expressions)
Add one slide for section 2: full mass conservation and assumptions used to reduce to this statement
DPO Fig. 5.2
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

8. Review: Force balance Newton’s law F = ma (from physics class)
This is a vector equation, with 3 equations for each of the three directions (x, y and z)
ma = F (for fluids)
Divide by volume, so express in terms of density  and force per unit volume :
a = 
“Acceleration” in a fluid has two terms: actual acceleration and advection
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

9. Time change and Acceleration
Time change the change in stuff with time, for instance temperature T:
T/t => T/t
(Units are stuff/sec; here heat/sec or J/sec or W)
Acceleration: the change in velocity with time
u/t => u/t
(Units are velocity/sec, hence m/sec2)
Put in rhp cp
DPO Fig. 7.1
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

10. Advection u/t = -u u/x
Move “stuff” - temperature, salinity, oxygen, momentum, etc.
By moving stuff, we might change the value of the stuff at the next location. We only change the value though if there is a difference (“gradient”) in the stuff from one point to the next
Advection is proportional to velocity and in the same direction as the velocity
E.g u T/x or u T/x is the advection of temperature in the x-direction
Effect on time change of the property:
T/t = -u T/x
Advection can act on velocity as well:
u/t = -u u/x
Advection
DPO Fig. 7.1
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

11. Forces acting on geophysical fluid
Gravity: g = 9.8 m/sec2
Pressure gradient force
Friction (dissipation) (viscous force)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)
DPO Fig. 7.1

12. Forces acting on geophysical fluid
Gravity: g = 9.8 m/sec2
Pressure gradient force
Friction (dissipation) (viscous force)
Towards center of Earth
DPO Fig. 7.1
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

13. Forces acting on geophysical fluid
Gravity: g = 9.8 m/sec2
Aside: what is the real shape of the constant gravity surface?
Geoid
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

14. Forces acting on geophysical fluid
Gravity
Pressure gradient force
Friction (dissipation) (viscous force)
DPO Fig. 7.1
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

15. Forces acting on geophysical fluid: vertical force balance
Gravity: g = 9.8 m/sec2
Pressure gradient force
Friction (dissipation) (viscous force)
Vertical balance (includes surface & internal waves):
Vertical acceleration +advection = pressure gradient force + gravity + viscous
Hydrostatic balance:
Dominant terms for many phenomena (not surface/internal waves) –
“static” – very small acceleration and advection
Viscous term is very small
0 = PGF + gravity (in words)
0 = - p/z - g (equation)
Towards center of Earth
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

16. Example of horizontal pressure gradients Daily surface pressure map (and IR map showing clouds) 10/29/ (in the atmosphere, we can simply measure the pressure at the surface)
Hurricane Sandy “frankenstorm”
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

17. Horizontal pressure gradient force
Small deviations of sea surface drive flows - usually much less than 1 meter height. Pressure gradient is very difficult to measure directly.
Gulf Stream example
1 meter height
Equivalent to pressure of 1 dbar, since water density is ~ 1000 kg/m3
1 meter height
100 kilometers width
(rest of water column: 5 km deep)
LOW
HIGH
Pressure gradient is directed from low to high. Calculate size.
Pressure gradient force is directed from high to low (water pushed towards lower pressure).
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

18. Compute acceleration due to PGF
Take the example of the Gulf Stream and compute the velocity after 1 year of acceleration.
(To calculate this, note that the PGF is -(1/)p/x and that the pressure difference is given from the hydrostatic balance -(1/)p/z = g; use g=9.8 m/s2, z=1 m; x = 100 km. Then u/t for acceleration, t = 1 year ~ 3.14x107 sec.)
You’ll find it’s ridiculously large (compared with the observed 1 m/sec). How is such a large pressure gradient maintained without large velocities?
(answer: Earth’s rotation - Coriolis to be discussed next lecture)
Ånswer: delta u ~ 3 x 10^6 m/sec
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

19. Mixing, diffusion, and viscosity
Random motion of molecules carries “stuff” around and redistributes it (mixes)
Fick’s Law: net flux of “stuff” is proportional to its gradient
Flux = -(Qa-Qb)/(xa-xb) => -Q
where  is the diffusivity
Units: [Flux] = [velocity][stuff], so
[] = [velocity][stuff][L]/[stuff] = [L2/time] = m2/sec
Kappa has units of m2/sec. Grad Q has units of stuff/m. Kappa*gradQ has units of (m/sec)(stuff), which is flux
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

20. Mixing, diffusion, and viscosity
Fick’s Law: flux of “stuff” is proportional to its gradient Flux = -Q
If the concentration is exactly linear, with the amount of stuff at both ends maintained at an exact amount, then the flux of stuff is the same at every point between the ends, and there is no change in concentration of stuff at any point in between.
Flux
Kappa has units of m2/sec. Grad Q has units of stuff/m. Kappa*gradQ has units of (m/sec)(stuff), which is flux
Qb at xb
Concentration Q(x)
Qa at xa
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

21. Mixing, diffusion, and viscosity
Diffusion: if there is a convergence or divergence of flux then the “stuff” concentration can change xb
Flux
Concentration Q(x)
Buildup of Q here due to convergence of flux
Removal of Q here due to divergence of flux xa
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

22. Mixing, diffusion, and viscosity
Diffusion term
Change in Q with time = change in Q flux with space
Q/t = -Flux/x
Q/t =  2Q/x2 xb
Flux
Concentration Q(x)
Buildup of Q here due to convergence of flux
Removal of Q here due to divergence of flux xa
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

23. Viscosity
Viscosity: apply same Fick’s Law concept to velocity. So viscosity affects flow if there is a convergence of flux of momentum.
Stress (“flux of momentum”) on flow is
 (= “flux”) = -u
where  is the viscosity coefficient in m2/sec
Aside:
is the kinematic viscosity
μ =  is the dynamic viscosity in kg/m sec
Stress proportional to strain (shear) -> Newtonian fluid
Nu is the kinematic viscosity
Rho*nu is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity
DPO Fig. 7.3
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

24. Acceleration due to viscosity
DPO Fig. 7.1
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

25. Acceleration due to viscosity
If the viscous momentum flux is convergent (or divergent) then it can accelerate the flow
That is, if /x = -( u/x) ≠ 0, then
u/t =  2u/x2 =  2u/x2 if  is constant
If the viscosity itself depends on space, then it needs to be INSIDE the space derivative: x (  u/x)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

26. Eddy diffusivity and eddy viscosity
Molecular viscosity and diffusivity are extremely small (values given on later slide)
We know from observations that the ocean behaves as if diffusivity and viscosity are much larger than molecular (I.e. ocean is much more diffusive than this)
The ocean has lots of turbulent motion (like any fluid)
Turbulence acts on larger scales of motion like a viscosity - think of each random eddy or packet of waves acting like a randomly moving molecule carrying its property/mean velocity/information
2013 Friday – got to here
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

27. Stirring and mixing Vertical stirring and ultimately mixing:
Internal waves on an interface stir fluid, break and mix
Horizontal stirring and ultimately mixing:
Gulf Stream (top): meanders and makes rings (closed eddies) that transport properties to a new location
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

28. Eddy diffusivity and viscosity
Example of surface drifter tracks: dominated to the eye by variability (they can be averaged to make a very useful mean circulation)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

29. Eddy field in a numerical model of the ocean
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

30. Measurements of mixing in ocean: horizontal and vertical diffusion are very different from each other and much larger than molecular diffusion
Horizontal diffusion
Vertical diffusion
Intentional dye release, then track the dye over months
Ledwell et al Nature (1993)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

31. Values of molecular and eddy diffusivity and viscosity
Molecular diffusivity and viscosity
T = cm2/sec (temperature)
S = cm2/sec (salinity)
 = cm2/sec at 0°C (0.010 at 20°C)
Eddy diffusivity and viscosity values for heat, salt, properties are the same size (same eddies carry momentum as carry heat and salt, etc)
But eddy diffusivities and viscosities differ in the horizontal and vertical
Eddy diffusivity and viscosity
AH = 104 to 108 cm2/sec (horizontal) = 1 to 104 m2/sec
AV = 0.1 to 1 cm2/sec (vertical) = 10-5 to 10-4 m2/sec
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

32. Completed force balance (no rotation)
acceleration + advection =
pressure gradient force + gravity + viscous term
x: u/t + u u/x + v u/y + w u/z =
- (1/)p/x + /x(AHu/x) +
/y(AHu/y) +/z(AVu/z)
y: v/t + u v/x + v v/y + w v/z =
- (1/)p/y + /x(AHv/x) +
/y(AHv/y) +/z(AVv/z)
z: w/t + u w/x + v w/y + w w/z =
- (1/)p/z - g + /x(AHw/x) +
/y(AHw/y) +/z(AVw/z)
For physics-based students; class is not responsible for this full set of equations.
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

33. Some scaling arguments
Full set of equations governs all scales of motion. How do we simplify?
We can use the size of the terms to figure out something about time and length scales, then determine relative size of terms, then find the approximate force balance for the specific motion.
Introduce a non-dimensional term that helps us decide if the viscous terms are important
Acceleration Advection …… Viscosity
U/T U2/L …… U/L2
Reynolds number: Re = UL/  is the ratio of advective to viscous terms
Large Reynolds number: flow nearly inviscid (quite turbulent)
Small Reynolds number: flow viscous (nearly laminar)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

34. Equations for temperature, salinity, density
Temperature is changed by advection, heating, cooling, mixing (diffusion and double diffusion)
Salinity is changed by advection, evaporation, precipitation/runoff, brine rejection during ice formation, mixing (diffusion and double diffusion)
Density is related to temperature and salinity through the equation of state.
Often we just write an equation for density change and ignore separate temperature, salinity
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

35. Equations for temperature, salinity, density in words
T: change in T + advection of T =
heating source + diffusion of T
S: change in S + advection of S =
dilution by evaporation/precipitation + diffusion of S
:  = (S,T,p) (relate density to T, S, p through equation of state)
Fine print: T and S diffusivities κ might not necessarily be equal (“double diffusion” in which development of stratification affected by differing diffusivities)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

36. Equations for temperature, salinity, density in  format
T: T/t + u(T/x) + v(T/y) + w(T/z) =
(Q/h)/(cp) + (κHT/x)/x
+ (κHT/y)/y + (κVT/z)/z
S: S/t + u(S/x) + v(S/y) + w(S/z) =
S + (κHS/x)/x
+ (κHS/y)/y + (κVS/z)/z
:  = (S,T,p)
Simplification: treat diffusivities κH and κV as constant, so diffusion terms become, e.g. κH(T/x)/x
Heating term: note that heat source is included as Q/h where is a thickness over which the heat is distibuted (units of Q are W/m2)
Fine print: T and S diffusivities κ might not necessarily be equal (“double diffusion” in which development of stratification affected by differing diffusivities)
Should evaluate as Q/h, not Q in a sense
Actually look at change in temperature in a water column, whereas Q is on the surface of the column.
Talley SIO 210 (2015)

37. T: T/t + u T/x + v T/y + w T/z = (Q/h)/(cp) + /x(κHT/x) +
Equations for temperature, salinity, density in differential equation format
T: T/t + u T/x + v T/y + w T/z
= (Q/h)/(cp) + /x(κHT/x) +
/y(κHT/y) +/z(κVT/z)
 (Q/h)/(cp)+κH(2T/x2+2T/y2)+κV2T/z2
S: S/t + u S/x + v S/y + w S/z
= S + /x(κHS/x) +
/y(κHS/y) +/z(κVS/z)
 S + κH(2S/x2 + 2S/y2 ) + κV2S/z2
:  = (S,T,p)
Simplification: treat diffusivities κH and κV as constant
Heating term: note that heat source is included as Q/h where is a thickness over which the heat is distibuted (units of Q are W/m2)
Fine print: T and S diffusivities κ might not necessarily be equal (“double diffusion” in which development of stratification affected by differing diffusivities)
Talley SIO 210 (2015)