1. Electrochemical Cells in Actions Batteries and Fuel Cells Chapter 15

2. Study Design the chemical principles, half-equations and overall equations of simple primary and secondary galvanic cells the chemical principles, half-equations and overall equations of fuel cells; advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells compared to conventional energy sources

3. Cells and Batteries The electrochemical cell invented by Daniell in 1836 was used extensively at the time in telegraph and telephone work as a reliable source of electricity. Daniell cells are examples of ‘wet’ cells, where the electrolyte is in a liquid state. However, since Daniell cells could not be stored easily and were easily spilled, their application was limited. The demand for portable, leakproof electrochemical cells led to the development of the Leclanché or dry cell.

4. Cells and Batteries Batteries are practical applications of electrochemical cells. They are used as small, portable and efficient sources of electrical energy. A battery is a combination of cells in series or parallel, but common cells such as the dry cell are also often referred to as batteries.

5. Cells and Batteries Some cells, such as the common dry cell, are used until the supply of electrical energy is exhausted and are then discarded. These cells are sometimes called primary cells and are not rechargeable. Once the chemical reaction is over, they are useless. Other cells, such as the lead accumulator battery or nickel-cadmium cells, are rechargeable. Rechargeable batteries are sometimes referred to as secondary cells. Another type of cell is the fuel cell, which uses a supply of fuel in order to create a flow of electrons.

6. Cells and Batteries

7. Primary Cells – The Dry Cell An electrochemical cell in which the electrolyte is a paste, rather than a liquid, is known as a dry cell (Leclanché cell). The most commonly used dry cell is a C battery, which has a voltage of 1.5 V.

8. Primary Cells – The Dry Cell Dry cells are commonly used in torches, toys and transistor radios since they are cheap, small, reliable and easy to use. The oxidants and reductants used in such cells should have the following properties: ▫be far enough apart in the electrochemical series to produce a useful voltage from the cell ▫not react with water in the electrolyte too quickly, or they will ‘run out’ early (therefore highly reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and calcium are not found in such batteries) ▫be inexpensive.

9. Primary Cells – The Dry Cell

12. A dry cell consists of a zinc container filled with an electrolyte paste. This paste contains manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2, zinc chloride, ZnCl2, ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, and water. A carbon rod is embedded in the paste and forms the cathode. The zinc container is the anode. The thick paste prevents the contents of the cell from mixing, so a salt bridge is not needed.

13. Primary Cells – The Dry Cell The electrode half-equations are:

14. The Alkaline Zinc/Manganese Dioxide Cell The cell has a powdered zinc anode in an electrolyte paste of potassium hydroxide. The cathode is a compressed mixture of manganese dioxide and graphite. A separator consisting of a porous fibre soaked in electrolyte prevents mixing of the anode and cathode components. The cell is contained within a steel shell.

15. The Alkaline Zinc/Manganese Dioxide Cell

17. Questions Q1-Q3 pg 353

18. Button Cells Some appliances require the use of very small electrochemical cells. Button cells are primary cells that were developed to meet this need, although they are expensive to produce. However, they have an added advantage that they give a very steady voltage during operation.

19. Button Cells

21. Zinc Air Cell A zinc–air cell makes use of oxygen from the air as a reactant. It is less expensive to produce than the silver oxide cell and is mainly used for hearing aids. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide and the half-equations for each electrode may be written as follows:

22. Zinc Air Cell

24. Lithium Cells Lithium cells are cells based on lithium anodes. Since lithium is a very reactive metal, and also very light, these batteries can produce a high cell voltage. However, they require a more robust construction. They are far more expensive than common batteries but have a shelf life of 10 years.

25. Lithium Cells Primary lithium cells include lithium manganese dioxide and lithium thionyl chloride cells. The most common is the lithium–manganese cell. This has a lithium anode, a manganese dioxide cathode, and a non-aqueous electrolyte such as propylene carbonate.

26. Lithium Cells The anode (oxidation) reaction is: The cathode reaction is:

27. Lithium Cells Another type of lithium battery, the lithium thionyl chloride cell, consists of a lithium anode, a carbon cathode and an electrolyte solution of lithium aluminium chloride, LiAlCl4, in thionyl chloride, SOCl2. The cathode is a highly porous Teflon-coated carbon cylinder that is saturated with the electrolyte material. The SO2 produced at the cathode dissolves in the thionyl chloride. The anode and cathode are kept apart by a separator.

28. Lithium Cells

30. Questions Q4-Q6 pg 356

31. Secondary Cells – The Lead Acid Accumulator

32. The Lead Acid Accumulator – Discharging Process

35. The Lead Acid Accumulator – Recharging Process

37. Recharging Process Since this reaction is not spontaneous, a direct current must be applied in order for it to proceed. This is achieved by the alternator (a motor-driven electrical source of higher voltage than the battery), which has a potential difference of 14 V. The recharging process converts electrical energy into chemical energy and is an example of an electrolytic reaction (refer to chapter 16).

38. Nickel Cadmium Cell

39. Nickel Metal Hydride Cell

40. Rechargeable Lithium Ion Cell

43. Questions Q7-Q10 pg 361

44. Fuel Cells A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy into usable DC electricity and heat without combustion as an intermediary step. First demonstrated in 1839, fuel cells produce electricity without combustion by combining fuels such as hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of an electrolyte. Water and heat are the only by-products of the process. Fuel cell technology was not extensively utilised until the 1960s when it was used in limited application by the US space program.

45. How do fuel cells work? All fuel cells have the same basic operating principle. Fuel cells consist of an electrolyte material that is sandwiched in between two thin electrodes (porous anode and cathode). The input fuel passes over the anode (and oxygen over the cathode) where it is split into ions and electrons. The electrons go through an external circuit while the ions move through the electrolyte towards the oppositely charged electrode. At the electrode, ions combine to create byproducts, primarily water and carbon dioxide. Depending on the input fuel and electrolyte, different chemical reactions will occur.

46. Alkaline Fuel Cells

48. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

50. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

52. Comparison of Fuel Cells

53. Advantages of Fuel Cells

54. Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

55. Questions Q11-Q15 pg 367