1. Mexico Authoritarian democracy in a developed nation with severe inequalities

2. Brief History in 3 Segments Colonialism (1519 – 1821) Independence until the Revolution of 1910 (1810 - 1911) 20 th Century (1911 – Present)

3. Colonialism Cultural Heterogeneity Began as Amerindians controlled by the Aztecs from Tenochtitlan Spanish conquistadors (Hernan Cortes) brought it under Spanish control Population is now 60% Mestizo, with more Amerindians living in the south

4. Colonialism Catholicism Spanish missions became population centers Economic Dependency Colony depended on Spain for all resources Spanish mostly ignored (never explored) Mexico’s vast natural resources

6. Independence (1810 -1911) Miguel Hidalgo led a popular rebellion against Spanish rule in 1810 Formal recognition of independence from Spain comes in 1821 Characteristics of the new country Instability – absence of Spanish hierarchy Rise of military – high ranking generals often served simultaneously as president (known as Caudillo) Domination by the U.S. – instability of its southern neighbor leads U.S. to challenge Mexican land claims Liberal vs. Conservative Struggle – ideals of popular democracy clash with colonial style authoritarianism

7. Miguel Hidalgo “Father of the Mexican Nation”

8. Loss of Territory 1836-1848 North Texas declared independence in 1836 Armed conflict had started in 1835 Texas annexed by USA in 1845 US policy makers wanted to extend US control farther west 1847 – US invaded Veracruz 1848 – Treaty signed; $18 million Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California and parts of Colorado

12. Independence (1810 -1911) The Porfiriato (1876 – 1911) Porfirio Diaz staged a military coup in 1876 and became president promising one term in office Characteristics Stability Authoritarianism – no power sharing beyond small group of elites Foreign investment, economic growth – primarily from the U.S. Growing gap between rich and poor

13. Porfirio Diaz President of Mexico, 1876-1880 1884-1911

14. 20 th Century 1910 Revolution Reformers sought an end to Diaz’s rule, Diaz blocked any creation of a presidential election Support grew for General Francisco Madero, Diaz was forced to abdicate in 1911 Characteristics from 1910 to 1934 Chaos Warlordism Popular uprisings

15. 20 th Century Influences of the Era Patron-Client System Caudillos (political-military leader) challenge each other for power  Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa led peasant armies in separate rebellions Many assassinations between caudillo followers Constitution of 1917 Established democratic elections (3 branches of gov’t) did not end violence or assassinations

16. 20 th Century Influences of the Era Conflict with the Catholic Church Liberals believed church was an instrument of authoritarian conservatives, restrict church activities, priests fought back Establishment of the PRI Caudillos all came together under one political party Pass power between each other in single 6 year terms (sexenio) Other leaders get major positions in government

17. 20 th Century The Cardenas Presidency (1934-1940) Redistribution of land – ejidos given to peasants Nationalization of industry – foreign business owners were kicked out and taken under government control Protected domestic industry through import substitution industrialization (ISI) – high tariffs Investment in public works – roads, electricity, other public services Encouragement of peasant and union organization Concentration of presidential power, peaceful transfer to the next caudillo

18. Lazaro Cardenas President of Mexico 1934-1940

19. 20 th Century Pendulum Theory – after Cardenas, President Aleman returned to a market driven economy, and the next president returned to Cardenas-style policies, and so on… Pendulum ended in 1970s with the rise of technicos – educated business oriented leaders who favored the free market 1980s characterized by neoliberalism – free market, balanced government budget, privatization of industry, limited government Results in “Mexican Miracle” – spectacular GNP growth through the early 1980s Conflict develops between politicos (old elite of the PRI) and the technicos

20. Cleavages in Mexico Urban vs. Rural – Mexico is 75% urban Urban voters are less likely to support PRI Social Class – Gini coefficient of.50 Poorest 10% has 1.6% of the money Richest 10% has 35.6% Middle to upper income earners likely support PAN Mestizo vs. Amerindian – 30% see themselves as Amerindian Amerindians are more likely to live in impoverished rural areas

21. Cleavages in Mexico North vs. South North is dry and mountainous Trade with U.S. has enriched the north (NAFTA) North is more likely to support PAN South has not benefited from NAFTA Zapatista movement based in the south

22. Government Institutions Mexico is a Federal Republic – considerable power at the national and state levels Historical distribution Presidency dominated the power structure Legislature and judiciary acted as “rubber stamp” for executive decisions Constitution of 1917 is modeled on the U.S., with checks and balances, 3 branches, federalism Tended towards authoritarianism through 20 th century, despite the constitution Modern description would be “strong presidential system”

23. Executive President elected every 6 years, can serve one sexenio (6 year term) Cardenas started this tradition (1934-1940) Under the PRI, incumbent would select the successor, appoint all powerful bureaucratic officials, name candidates for governor and Senate President was effectively the manager of a massive patron-client system PAN’s Fox was the first to try and govern without the patron-client PRI system behind him (2000-2006) People in Mexico still view the president as all powerful, and responsible for all failures of government Fox lacked support of the legislature, was still blamed for failing to enact programs

24. Bureaucracy 1.5 million employees of the federal government Paid very little, but even low to mid level bureaucrats have considerable power PRI officials would use position to boost their incomes through corrupt practices… most expect it to occur today as well Para-Statal entities – autonomous governmental agencies PEMEX – state owned oil company Fox pushed for privatization of entities like PEMEX but failed

25. Military Generals dominated politics through the 19 th and early 20 th century All presidents were generals through 1940s Creation and centralization of power into the PRI brought the military under control Presidents Calles and Cardenas rotated generals’ regional commands, effectively depoliticizing the military Often provided generals with business opportunities and other economic benefits to keep them out of politics Military is now feared to be accepting deals with drug cartels, similar to the arrangement they used to have with the government General Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo, head of anti-drug force, arrested in 1997 for protecting a drug lord

26. Judiciary Follows code law, not common law Common law – based on tradition, past legal precedents, courts may interpret statutes Code law – comprehensive system of written rules for criminal, commercial, and civil codes Judiciary does not have power of judicial review Supreme Court has the power constitutionally, but never exercises it on important issues Judiciary is not independent Judges are “appointed for life”, but in tradition, all judges resign at the start of a president’s sexenio so he can place his loyalists on the bench Zedillo administration (1994-2000) tried to strengthen judiciary by obeying court judgments Strong judiciary is difficult due to perception that judges are corrupt

27. Legislature Bicameral Congress Chamber of Deputies – 500 members Senate – 128 members Functionally similar to U.S. Congress constitutionally, but was controlled by the president until the 1980’s PRI’s legislative grip was lost by 1988 due to growing strength of opposition and proportional representation reforms Lacked a majority for the first time in 1997 Since 2006, PAN and PRD held larger numbers of seats than PRI Parties are required by law to sponsor 30% women candidates Challenges the president, but has not fully developed into a true president “check”

28. Political Parties PRI – Partido Revolucionario Institucional In power continuously from 1920 to 2000 Formed out of elites who wished to compromise rather than perpetuate violence Coroporatist structure – groups were carefully selected to come under the party umbrella and wield influence Patron-Clientelism – support comes from rural areas where PRI can do favors

29. Political Parties PAN – National Action Party PRI’s opposition to the right Platform Regional autonomy Less government in the economy Clean and fair elections Good rapport with the Catholic Church Support for private and religious education Won presidency in 2000 and 2006

30. Political Parties PRD – Democratic Revolutionary Party PRI’s opposition to the left Has been poorly organized, lacks a clear defining alternative to pro-market PAN Led by Obrador, finished just behind PAN’s Calderon for president in 2006 Obrador finished behind PRI’s Nieto in 2012

31. Elections Direct elections for president, Chamber of Deputies, senators, and most state and local officials Most competitive in urban areas, though competition is growing in rural Pressure for elections to be fair started in 1988 Population was becoming more urban, educated Mexico sought world trade agreements, led to international pressure Most recent election changed power balance as PRI lost heavily in both legislative chambers, PRD gained substantially, PAN gained a little bit

32. Elections Presidential “First past the post” Senate Each of 31 states elects 3 senators 2 chosen through direct election 1 given to party with the 2 nd highest number of votes 32 more senators chosen through proportional representation Chamber of Deputies 300 seats determined by plurality SMD vote 200 determined by proportional representation

33. Political Participation in Mexico Patron-Clientelism Rooted in loyalty to caudillos in 19 th century Diminishing due to modernization, urbanization, but still prevalent Accusations by PRD’s Obrador that PAN’s Calderon won through vote-rigging Protests Government usually responds with co-optation; bringing protesters into the political process ex. Tlatelolco Plaza masacre led to student protesters working in the next presidential administration

34. Political Participation in Mexico Voting PRI controlled elections at all levels until reforms in the 1990’s Election day parties with free food, entertainment for PRI voters, rife with corruption (clientelism) Today around 60-65% of Mexicans vote in presidential elections (63% in 2012 election) Voter behavior is often determined by Region – North supports PAN, South supports PRD Education Level – Higher educated voters more likely to vote PAN or PRD than PRI Income – Higher income voters more likely to vote PAN

35. Political Participation in Mexico Civil Society PRI practiced state corporatism – state mediated among groups to prevent challenges to the government Created 3 interest groups; labor, peasants, and middle class with each controlled by the PRI PAN formed around discontented business owners who were not connected to the system (1939) State corporatism, neocorporatism, and pluralism all could possibly emerge now with the fall of the PRI and rise of competitive elections

36. Political Institutions Regime is transitioning from authoritarianism and control to liberal democracy and capitalism Economically mixed picture PPP adjusted income - $14,800 per year Massive inequality Economic dependency on neighbors Developed? Developing? MIC?

37. Political Institutions Transition to Democracy 2000 and 2006 saw considerable progress in political accountability political competition political freedom political equality Not enough history to demonstrate a consistent trend of democratic practices

38. Interest Groups Through co-optation, Mexican private organizations have always been well linked into the government Leads to slow development of civil society Elements of state corporatism led business elites to get rich through connections, but were not incorporated into the PRI Labor was accommodated after unionizing, made strong gains from 1940-1982 PAN leans more toward neo-corporatism than PRI

39. Media No criticism under PRI rule Government subsidized sympathetic media outlets Most media revenue came from PRI ads PAN rule has allowed open media access, domestic and international new agencies “Toallagate” – scandal about overpriced towels purchased for Pres. Fox’s mansion “Comes y te vas” – “eat and go” instructions given to Castro during a U.N. gathering became a controversy

40. Current Issues in Mexico The Economy Problems Large gap between rich and poor Rapid, unplanned urbanization Heavy borrowing against high oil prices through the 1970’s… plummeting price in 1982 caused massive foreign debt (70% of GNP) Reforms – Begun by president Miguel de la Madrid and the technicos Sharp cuts in government spending Debt reduction Privatization, tax cutting to invite U.S. businesses into Mexico Oportunidades – government anti-poverty program that gives free benefits and jobs to those without formal jobs

41. Current Issues in Mexico Foreign Policy Historically bilateral – all focused on the U.S. This makes for a shaky relationship Increasingly, Mexico asserts itself at the UN and WTO, among other international forums Drug Trafficking Campaign by Fox and Calderon to root out corruption has led to massive increase in violence Regularly involves brutal murders of police Cartels are competing to control distribution into the U.S.

42. Current Issues in Mexico Foreign Policy Immigration Policy Mexico supports amnesty for illegal immigrants, guest worker program  Initially supported by Bush, but 9/11 changed American border priorities Calderon has denounced the building of the border fence, comparing it to the Berlin Wall Maquiladora and NAFTA Zones in Mexico without customs duties created to bring manufacturing business Lack of environmental and employment regulations in Mexico have led to criticism Mexico is also a GATT/WTO member

43. Current Issues in Mexico Foreign Policy War on Terror (Sept. 11, 2001) Mexican public opinion did not support US invasion of Iraq  Historical suspicion of US invading smaller, sovereign nations Fox’s gov’t rejected US resolutions Distrust continues over this issue

44. Current Issues in Mexico Ethnic Rebellions Zapatistas – EZLN (Zapatista Army of National Liberation) protested NAFTA by capturing four towns in Chiapas (Jan. 1, 1994 – day NAFTA went into effect) Saw NAFTA as exploitation of Amerindians to benefit PRI bosses Movement is growing in the South, very hostile to the rich, the government, and mestizos

45. Current Issues in Mexico Democracy – 1996 Electoral Reform CFE – Federal Election Commission Placed restrictions on campaign finance Reduced PRI control of media Bring in international watchers to ensure fair elections Allow election monitoring by opposition party

46. Current Issues in Mexico Democracy – 2012 Elections PRI retook Presidency Enrique Peña Nieto in 2012; fraud protests occurred Chamber of Deputies PartySeats+/- PRI212-30 PAN114-28 PRD104+41