1. “We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong we may begin to use it with love and respect.” Aldo Leopold 1

2. They provide lumber for housing They are biomass for fuelwood They provide pulp for papers They harbor medicines They are a tremendous source of food (agriculture)

3. They slow down runoff, minimizing soil erosion They provide water recharge for surface water/groundwater They can influence climate (water cycle, photosynthesis, cellular respiration) They are vital to global carbon cycle (carbon sinks) They are natural air purifiers

4. Biodiversity is a wealth vital to all life & economies The ecological processes associated with biodiversity such as matter cycling, energy flow, and species interactions are vital to all biota and economies Biological consequences of biodiversity loss through environmental degradation impact all lives and economies.

5. The ecological health of an area is described in terms of biodiversity richness and ecological integrity which is the conditions and natural processes that generate and maintain biodiversity and allow evolutionary change as a key mechanism for adapting to changes in environmental conditions. Conservation Biology “maintaining earth’s life support system”

6. Between 1872-1927, there was increased involvement of federal government Theodore Roosevelt Persuaded Congress to give him power to designate public land as federal wildlife refuges. Established first wildlife refuge in 1903 at Pelican Island in Florida - for preservation of the endangered brown pelican Tripled the size of the forest reserves and transferred administration from DOI to Dept of Agriculture In 1905, the US Forest Service was created Gifford Pinchot appointed as its first chief Adhered to principles of sustainable yield and multiple use

7. In the US, the largest amount of land is dedicated to public lands Mostly in Alaska (73%) & Western US (22%) Classified as: Multiple use lands Moderately restricted lands Restricted-use lands

8. These are Grasslands & Forests managed by the US Forest Service US Forest Service Principles of Management: Sustainable yield (cutting trees no faster than they could regenerate) Multiple use (timber harvesting, grazing, recreation, wildlife conservation) These are the actual uses of grassland and forested areas: Logging Mining livestock grazing oil extraction Recreation sport/commercial fishing Hunting watershed, soil & wildlife conservation

9. “National Resource Lands” – Alaska is managed by the Bureau of Land Management It is managed under the multiple use principal with an emphasis on providing a secure domestic supply of energy and strategic minerals, and on preserving rangelands for livestock under a permit system.

10. Currently there are 508 National Wildlife Refuges managed by USFWS NFR’s Protect habitats and breeding areas for waterfowl and big game to provide a harvestable supply for hunters, and protect endangered species (it is illegal to hunt, capture, and/or kill endangered species) Some permitable uses include: Sport hunting Trapping Sport/commercial fishing Oil & gas development Mining Logging Grazing Military activities Farming The US DOI must find these uses “compatible” with the purpose of each refuge

11. Permitted Uses in restricted lands include: camping, hiking, sport fishing, boating, sport hunting, mining, and oil/gas drilling Roughly 49% of the National Park System is designated as wilderness area. These areas are managed by National Park Service, FWS, Bureau of Land Management (BLM) The 375 restricted use lands in the US include major national parks (like Yellowstone), recreational areas, monuments, memorials, battlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, seashores, and lakeshores Example: Fire Island National Seashore

12. It was T. Roosevelt who set up the initial system Jimmy Carter made the most additions, especially Alaska in 1980 Bill Clinton added a new national monument area the size of Yellowstone in 1996 (the National Arctic Wildlife Refuge).

13. Rangeland is defined as land that supplies forage or vegetation for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals. They act as watershed areas, and habitat for wildlife Rangelands support ruminants: animals that digest cellulose in grasses and convert it to meat & milk Cows, sheep, goats (domesticated) Rangelands also provide recreational areas for hiking, camping, and hunting

14. Overgrazing occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grassland area (TOTC) Impacts from overgrazing include: 1) Loss of biodiversity 2) Soil compaction and a decrease water holding capacity 3) Increased erosion because it becomes drier – this causes plants like the prickly pear cactus and mesquite (shrub) to dominate, and leads to desertification 4) Impacts on adjacent riparian zones Riparian Zone – thin strips of lush vegetation along streams which prevent floods by absorption of flood waters

15. Goal: maximize livestock productivity without overgrazing rangeland vegetation Methods: 1. Stocking rate – most widely used. Control the number of each kind of animal/unit area so an area’s carrying capacity is not exceeded “resource partitioning by ranchers” 2. Continuous grazing – occurs throughout the year and requires little rancher intervention. Problem – they tend to overgraze flat areas and riparian zones 3. Deferred-Rotation Grazing – moving livestock between 2 or more range areas to allow perennial grasses to recover from grazing Ranchers must also consider predator control – coyotes, grey wolf, grizzly bear Solution: penning young lambs/cattle together for 30 days  allow them to graze together. Cattle kicking predators, protecting sheep

16. Big Business pays very low fees for permits How can it become more sustainable? Limit grazing in riparian areas Ban grazing on stressed rangeland Competitive bidding for grazing permits Allow environmental groups to purchase grazing permits, even if they choose not to graze the land Raise grazing fees to fair market value Abolish rancher-dominated advisory boards

17. 54 Nationally, 1100 Globally National Parks are threatened by: Natural resources in developing countries Poachers popularity increases, but budget cuts to park service (1 park ranger = 84,000 visitors) Plagued with litter, noise, traffic jams Increased crime Invasion of non-native species Yellowstone ~1000 snowmobiles/day Tailpipe admissions of 1.7 million cars/year! Vanishing predators (wolves, bear, coyotes)

18. Integrated Management Plans (IMP) Combine conservation practices with sustainable development of resources in and adjacent to parks Core Protection Areas are managed As well as Buffer Areas (surrounding the core) Commercial logging, sustainable grazing by livestock, sustainable hunting/fishing Involve residents in developing management and restoration plans for the park IMP’s need adequate funding to be successful and inner core areas must be large enough to sustain larger animals

19. Presently managed under “natural regulation” – as if they were wilderness ecosystems that would sustain themselves if left alone. The annual budget designated to NP’s is $1.5 billion There is a $6 billion backlog of maintenance, repairs & high priority construction to accommodate increase visitors numbers 92% of the annual budget spent on visitor services 7% spent on natural resources protection 1% spent on environmental research for ecological management strategies

20. All entrance fees used for management, upkeep and repair instead of going into national treasury Require IMP’s for all parks and nearby federal lands. Increase new parkland near the most threatened parks Increase budget for buying private lands within parks Identify all available visitor parking Concessionaires should lease, not own the land Increase entrance fees Restrict numbers of visitors Encourage volunteers to give lectures/tours - NOT National Park Service personnel Encourage donations from individuals/corporations for public maintenance/repair

21. In addition to National Parks, setting up Biosphere Reserves worldwide (presently there are 300) is a great way to sustain biodiversity and ecosystems Goal: large enough to support species and combine conservation and sustainable use of natural resources Conservation biologists believe that in order to protect biodiversity and ecological integrity, a worldwide network of reserves, parks, wildlife sanctuaries, wilderness and other protected areas is needed Minimum amount of space needed is 10% of Earth’s land area! Based on theory of Island Biogeography (“habitat islands”) Many countries can’t set aside large tracts of land, so wildlife corridors are established to connect fragmented habitat “islands” Establish wildlife corridors connecting small-medium sized bioreserve areas. (allows for migration and genetic diversity)

22. US Wilderness Act of 1964 Act authorized the government to protect undeveloped tracts of public land as part of the National Wilderness System unless Congress later decides they are needed for the national good. Land in this system is to be used only for nondestructive forms of recreation such as hiking and camping. Why preserve them? Aesthetic Value Psychological value (refuge from the “noise”) Preserve biodiversity and ecological integrity Preserve for scenic/recreational purposes Protect areas from exploitation and degradation

23. 1968 National Wild & Scenic Rivers Act Rivers are protected if they have outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, wildlife, historical or cultural value Development is prohibited in these areas Only 0.2% of all US rivers listed There is public urge for 1500 more to be added

24. 1968 – Protects scenic and historic hiking trails This is a very low priority law, and receives little funding or support