1. Voltammetry
伏安分析法

2. Basic principle of voltammetry
Read: pp. 716 – Problems: 25-1,2,3,6,13
Basic principle of voltammetry
Voltammetry:
A group of electrochemical methods based on measuring current (i)- applied potential curve during electrolysis
- only a small amount of sample (analyte) is used
Polarography:
Invented by J. Heyrovsky (Nobel Prize 1959). Differs from voltammetry in that it employs a dropping mercury electrode (DME) as Working electrode to continuously renew the electrode surface.

6. 1. Polarographic analysis process and the conditions for polarographic wave formation
Electrolytic analysis carried out under special conditions.
specific characteristics：
A、a polarized electrode and a depolarized electrode are used as working electrode
B、No stirring
Incomplete electrolysis (only a small amount of analyte is consumed)

7. Polarized electrode and depolarized electrode
If the electrode potential has great changes when infinite small current flow through the electrode, such electrode is referred to as polarized electrode. eg. DME ;
If the electrode potential does not change with current , such electrode is called ideal depolarized electrode. eg. SCE

9. Three electrode cell: Working
Reference
Counter/auxilliary
current flows between working and counter electrodes.
Potential controlled by potentiostat between working and reference electrodes.

10. Two special electrodes
Supporting electrolyte : Usually relatively higher concentration of strong electrolytes (alkali metal salts) serves as supporting electrolyte
Dissolved oxygen is usually removed by bubbling nitrogen through the solution
Voltage scanning Under unstirred state, recording voltage - current curve

11. ③ electrolytic current ④～⑤limiting diffusion current
①～ ②residual current
③ electrolytic current
④～⑤limiting diffusion current
Cd 2+ +2e + Hg = Cd(Hg)
2Hg + 2Cl- -2e = Hg2Cl2

12. 0.001 M Cd2+ in 0.1 M KNO3 supporting electrolyte
Electrode become more and more reducing and capable of reducing Cd2+
Cd e- Cd
Current starts to be registered at the electrode
Current at the working electrode continue to rise as the electrode become more reducing and more Cd2+ around the electrode are being reduced. Diffusion of Cd2+ does not limit the current yet
All Cd2+ around the electrode has already been reduced. Current at the electrode becomes limited by the diffusion rate of Cd2+ from the bulk solution to the electrode. Thus, current stops rising and levels off at a plateau
i (A) E½
Working electrode is no yet capable of reducing Cd2+  only small residual current flow through the electrode id
Base line of residual current
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-1.4
V vs SCE

13. Limiting current
Related to concentration
E½ at ½ i

14. 0.5mmol镉离子极谱图

15. Limiting diffusion current -- A basis of polarographically quantitative analysis
When the applied voltage exceeds the decomposition voltage, diffusion-controlled current is expressed as:
i = K(C-C0)
When the applied voltage gets more negative, C0 →0, current becomes only diffusion limited, then
id = KC
Id reaches a limiting value proportional to ion concentration C in bulk solution, and do not changes with applied voltage longer

16. Half-wave potential —polarographic qualitative analysis
The potential at which the current is equal to one half the limiting current is called the half-wave potential and given the symbol E1/2.

17. How it works?
▲ The applied voltage is gradually increased, typically by going to a more positive( more negative decomposing potential)
▲ A small residual current is observed.
▲ When the voltage becomes great enough, reduction occurs at the analytical electrode causing a current.
▲ The electrode is rapidly saturated so current production is limited – based on diffusion of the analyte to the small electrode.

18. How it works ?
The reduced species alters the surface of the mercury electrode.
To prevent problems, the mercury surface is renewed by “ knocking off ” a drop –providing a fresh surface.
This results in an oscillation of the data as it is collected.

19. K = 607 n D1/2m2/3t1/6 id = 607nD1/2m2/3t1/6C
2. The diffusion current theory and
polarographic wave equation
We have already known:
id = KC
In above equations, K is called Ilkovic constant, it is expressed as follows:
K = 607 n D1/2m2/3t1/6
Thus,
id = 607nD1/2m2/3t1/6C

20. id = 607nD1/2m2/3t1/6C
Average limiting diffusion current denoting average current on mercury drop from drop forming to falling (mA)
Number of transferring electrons in electrode reaction(e/mol)
Diffusion coefficient of electroactive analyte in solution(cm2.sec-1)
Mercury mass flow rate(mg.sec-1)
Drop time (sec)
Concentration of electro-active analyte(mmol.L-1)
From above equation, we can find that when temperature, matrix solution and capillary characteristic are kept constant, id is proportional to C

21. polarographic wave equation：
When i = ½ id , log term in above equation is equal to zero, corresponding potential is called halfwave potential E1/2
●E1/2 independent on the concentration
●basis of qualitative analysis

22. in classical DC polarography
3. Interference current
in classical DC polarography
● Residual current
(1) redox reactions of impurities in solution
(2) charging of Hg drop
(non-faradaic current / non-redox current)
● Migration current
The current produced by static attraction of the electrode to sought-for ions

23. ● Polarographic Maximum (or malformed peak )
Complex artifactual phenomenon
Less likely at low drop rates, in concentrated electrolyte, or low concentration of electroactive species
Lessened by inclusion of surfactants in medium

24. ● Oxygen wave
Dissolved oxygen is easily reduced at many working electrodes. Thus an aqueous solution saturated with air exhibits two distinct oxygen waves.
The first results from the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide:
O H e-  H2O2
The second wave corresponds to the further reduction of hydrogen peroxide:
H2O H e-  2H2O
Sparge solutions with high purity N2 or Ar for 5-20 min

26. Factors that affect limiting diffusion current
Characteristics of capillary – hight of Hg
Potential of dropping Hg electrode
Composition of solution
Temperature
Factors that affect half-wave potential
Type and concentration of supporting electrolyte
Temperature
Forming complex
Acidic of solution

27. Question
Why a reference electrode with large area and a dropping mercury electrode with very small area are used to electrolyze in polarographic analysis ?
Why large amount of supporting electrolyte is added to sample solution?
Why does nitrogen gas pass through the solution before electrolysis ?
In the process of polarographic analysis whether or not to carry out stirring the solution? Why?

28. 4. Polarographically quantitative analytical methods
（id）avg = K·c
●Direct comparison method
●Calibration curve method
●Standard addition method

29. 5. Applications Fundamental studies Inorganic applications
Applications in pharmaceutical and biochem fields