1. Observations vs. Experiments Target Goals: I can distinguish between an observational study and an experiment. I can explain how a lurking variable in an observational study can lead to confounding. I can identify experimental units, treatments, factors, explanatory and response variables in an experiment .
4.2 a
h.w: p. 230: 37-42; p 253: 45, 47, 49,

2. Review SRS
Recall:
Individuals are selected so that all possible combinations (every sample of size n) of individuals have an equal chance to be in the sample.

3. Types of Simple Random Samples:
Systematic Random Sample
Stratified Random Sample
Multistage Sample
Cluster Sample

4. Types of Bias Undercoverage Nonresponse Response Bias
Wording of Questions

5. Observational Study
Observes individuals and measures variables of interest
to influence the response.
Poor way to gauge effect.
Usually fails because of
but does not attempt
confounding by lurking variable.

6. Pg. 213 Stratified vs. Cluster
Clusters chosen for convenience and for practical reasons but don’t offer the statistical advantage that stratified does.
Cluster: should represent the whole population
Strata: contain similar individuals and large differences between the strata.

7. Experiment
Deliberately imposes some treatment on individuals in order to observe their response.
Only source of fully convincing data.

8. Confounded
Two variables (explanatory or lurking variables) are said to be confounded
(mixed up)
when their effects on a response variable cannot be distinguished from each other.
Example: If we observe welfare mothers, the effect of job training programs on finding work is confounded with the characteristics of mothers who seek out training on their own.

9. Exercise: Teaching Reading
An educator wants to compare the effectiveness of computer software that teaches reading with that of a standard reading curriculum. He tests the reading ability of each student in a class of fourth graders, and then divides them into two groups. One group uses the computer regularly, while the other studies a standard curriculum. At the end of the year, he retests all the students and compares the increase in reading ability in the two groups. Is this an experiment?
Yes, this is an experiment.

10. Why or why not?
A treatment is imposed.
What are the explanatory and response variables?
Explanatory variable:
The teaching method
Response variable:
The increase in reading ability on pre and post tests.

11. Exercise: The Effects of Propaganda
In 1940, a psychologist conducted an experiment to study the effect of propaganda on attitude toward a foreign government. He administered a test of attitude toward the German government to a group of American students. After the students read German propaganda for several months he tested them again to see if their attitudes had changed.

12. Unfortunately, Germany attacked and conquered France while the experiment was in progress.
Explain clearly why confounding makes it impossible to determine the effect of reading the propaganda.

13. We can never know how much of the change in attitude is due to the explanatory variable (reading propaganda)
And how much is due to the historical events of that time.
The data gave no information about the effect of reading propaganda.

14. If we want to observe individuals and record data without intervention, we conduct an observational study.
If we want to examine a cause and effect relationship, we conduct an experiment.

15. The individuals on which the experiment is done are called
If the units are people, they are called
experimental units.
subjects .

16. The experimental condition we apply to the units is called the
The explanatory variables (causing a change in the other variables) are called
The factors may be applied in different
treatment.
factors.
levels.

17. Example : The Physician’s Health Study
Does regularly taking aspirin help protect people against heart attacks?
experimental units: subjects; 21,996 male Dr.’s
factors: aspirin (y or n), beta carotene (y or n)
assigned randomly
response variable: subjects who suffered heart attacks

18. 239 of placebo group had heart attacks
A placebo is a “dummy pill” or inactive treatment that is indistinguishable from the real treatment.
After several years:
239 of placebo group had heart attacks
139 of aspirin group had heart attacks
Conclusion
Beta carotene had no effect : CONTROL
There is evidence that taking asprin reduces heart attacks.
In principle, experiments can give good evidence for causation.

19. Exercise: Resisting Drought
For the experimental situation described, identify the experimental units or subjects, the factors (explanatory variables), the treatments, and the response variables.

20. The ability to grow in the shade may help pines found in the dry forests of Arizona to resist drought. How well do these pines grow in shade? Investigators planted pine seedlings in a greenhouse in either full light or light reduced to 5% of normal by a shade cloth. At the end of the study, they dried the young trees and weighed them.
Units:
The individual trees
Factors:
The amount of light
Treatments:
Full light and reduced light
Response variables:
The weight of the trees

21. Exercise: Improving Response Rate
How can we reduce the rate of refusals in telephone surveys? Most people who answer at all listen to the interviewer’s introductory remarks and then decide whether to continue. One study made telephone calls to randomly selected households to ask opinions about the next election. In some calls, the interviewer gave her name, in others she identified the university she was representing, and in still some others she identified both herself and the university.

22. For each type of call, the interviewer either did or did not offer to send a copy of the final survey results to the person interviewed. Do these differences in the introduction affect whether the interview is completed?
Units:
The individuals who were called.
Factors:
One factor is what information is offered.

23. Treatments are:
Giving name, identifying university, or both of these.
Second Factor:
Offering to send a copy of the results.
Treatments are
Either offering or not offering
Response variables:
Whether the interview is completed.