1. Oligosaccarides and Polysaccharides
Complex
Carbohydrates

2. Lactose, a disaccharide
a reducing sugar; exhibits mutarotation
1,4-acetal linkage between 2 monomeric sugars
acidic hydrolysis yields galactose and glucose (1:1).

3. Maltose, a disaccharide
a reducing sugar; mutarotates
acidic hydrolysis yields only glucose
can be digested by humans & fermented by yeast.

4. Cellobiose, a disaccharide
a reducing sugar; mutarotates
can NOT be digested by humans nor fermented by yeast; CAN be digested by bacteria in ruminants and termites (which have -glucosidase enzyme).

5. Sucrose, a disaccharide
NOT a reducing sugar; NOT a hemiacetal; does NOT undergo mutarotation
hydrolysis yields glucose plus fructose (called “invert sugar” because rotation of polarized light changes sign).

6. Cellulose, a polysaccharide
acid hydrolysis yields only glucose
can have thousands of monomers linked; only one anomeric carbon; mutarotation occurs, NOT observed
rigid structure; hydrolyzed by -glucosidase enzymes.

7. Starch: a mixture of linear and branched polysaccharides
energy storage for plants (potatoes)
hydrolyzed readily by humans; yields only glucose.

8. Starch: the branched component
a much larger and more highly branched polysaccharide (GLYCOGEN) provides energy storage in animals.

9. Ethanol production
Ethanol can be produced by fermentation of simple sugars promoted by yeast.
Corn and other grains are major sources of simple sugars, but much more carbohydrate-containing biomass is in the form of polysaccharides such as cellulose.

10. Ethanol production
Efforts are now underway to utilize the otherwise wasted (as a fuel source) polysaccharides by hydrolyzing them to their component monosaccharides followed by fermentation.
Other plant sources of both simple and complex carbohydrates are being investigated as possible sources of ethanol for fuel.
These include switchgrass, sugar cane, and even kudzu.

11. Other important carbohydrates

12. Cell-Surface Carbohydrates: Blood Typing
The surface of human blood cells has proteins covalently bound via glycoside bonds to oligosaccharides that serve as antigens.
For a human to accept blood from a donor, their blood types must be compatible; otherwise, agglutination (clotting) occurs.
Compatibility depends on the identity of the sugars in the oligosaccharides bound to the surface proteins.

13. Type A Blood

14. Type B Blood

15. Type O Blood Recent research has led to isolation of a
bacterial enzyme that cleaves the sugar
bonded to the 3-position of galactose in
type A and B peptides to make O-type