1. The Fourth Branch of Government

2.   Division of labor  Specialization of job tasks  Hiring based on worker competency (merit system)  Hierarchical with vertical chain of command  Standard operating procedures govern activities Characteristics of Bureaucracy

3.   Political Appointees (the patronage system)  These are presidential appointees (approximately 3000 in number)  The Plum Book is a list of all the jobs in the federal bureaucracy to which the president will make an appointment  No job security – they are hired and fired by the president Federal Bureaucrats

4.   Senior Executives – the top managerial, supervisory and policy positions that link political appointees to the rest of the federal bureaucracy.  90 % are career appointees, hired based on merit, they can be moved from job to job or agency to agency but cannot be fired unless the government can prove cause  10% are appointed with approval of the Office of Personnel Management. They are non-career temporary bureaucrats that can be removed at the president’s pleasure. Federal Bureaucrats

5.   Civil Servants – merit based civil service (Pendleton Civil Service Act)  Jobs are acquired through open competition and competence  Political Neutrality – provided through job security assuming no malfeasance or nonfeasance  27% of federal civil servants are union members; more likely if they are blue-collar workers rather than white- collar workers Federal Bureacrats

6.   State and local bureaucrats number almost 20 million  Devolution accounts for much of the growth here  Shadow bureaucrats number almost 7 million  These are private organizations that provide vital services, or produce important goods and resources needed to serve the public interest  These are a result of the increased effort to contract out to bring the benefits of markets to government processes State, Local, Shadow Bureaucrats

7.   Departments – the 15 Executive Agencies headed by an appointed Secretary (Attorney General for the DOJ).  Independent Administrative Agencies – they are “independent” because they are outside the cabinet departments. Some of their heads sever fixed terms making them independent of the president, others serve at the presidents pleasure but cannot be fired without cause, and still others can be removed without cause. Though independent they fight for political support (the Acquisition Model). Categories of the Federal Bureaucracy

8.   Independent Regulatory Commissions – created to bring expertise to the establishment of regulations for industries and businesses, to develop accountability standards, and to impose sanctions for non-compliance  Examples: The Interstate Commerce Commission, the Consumer Product Safety Commission  Government Corporations – government owned businesses that are seen to be in the public interest to be publicly administered, and which are meant to generate the income to support themselves without the need for federal monies (The US Postal Service is an example) Categories of the Federal Bureaucracy

9.   The Executive Office of the President – composed of dozens of offices and councils that assist the president in managing the complex and sprawling executive branch of the bureaucracy.  The heads of these offices and agencies are appointed by the president and do not generally require Senate confirmation Categories of the Federal Bureaucracy

10.   Agenda Setting  Iron Triangles – the long-term collaboration between government bureaucrats, interest groups, and legislative committees. They serve an important function, but give rise to allegations of chronyism, corruption, elitism and the “Washington cartel”  Issue Networks – temporary collaborations among bureaucrats, legislators and interest groups to set agendas and influence policy development Roles of the Bureaucracy in Public Policy

11.   Policy Formation – define a problem, develop a plan of action to address it (policy); bureaucrats often called upon by Congress to testify on the likely impact of proposed policies  Policy Approval – when laws are signed into existence or over-ride a presidential veto, they may be authorization laws that provide a plan of action to an agency for putting the law into effect.  Appropriation Approval – bureaucrats request appropriations (budgeted monies) from the president, justify appropriations to Congress, and lobby Congress for appopriations. Roles of the Bureaucracy in Public Policy

12.   Policy Implementation –  Administrative discretion – the interpretation of the law and the best way to implement it  Administrative rule making – the creation of rules, regulations and standards by top level bureaucrats  Administrative adjudication – the determination as to whether rules have been violated and what penalties will be imposed.  Policy Evaluation – determination of whether policies have been effective or not. Accountable to Congress, but evaluation of effectiveness of policy is still not a bureaucratic strong suit. Roles of the Bureaucracy in Public Policy

13.   To the People – efforts at reform and transparency  The Administrative Procedures Act (1946)  The Freedom of Information Act (1966)  Government in the Sunshine Act (1976)  Internet and government websites make government more accessible and accountable  The media can serve as a means of highlighting bureaucratic mis-steps, waste and inefficiency  Lawsuits are a final option Bureaucratic Accountability

14.   To the Courts  When lawsuits are filed against the bureaucracy, it is the courts that determine whether they are acting within their legal boundaries. Individuals, cities, interest groups, attorney’s general, etc., have all successfully brought lawsuits against the federal bureaucracy. Bureaucratic Accountability

15.   To Congress  Necessary as Congress provides funding  Congressional oversight – Congress can investigate bureaucratic departments and agencies. Can cut funding, modify their authority, or eliminate the agency if they are unhappy with it.  Congress can add pressure by creating sunset clauises that makes them automatically expire on a specified date without an extension by Congress Bureaucratic Accountability

16.   To the President  Approval or Vetoing of appropriations bills  President can fire political appointees  Through the OMB the president can increase or decrease a department’s or agency’s funding.  Internal Accountability  Codes of ethics and behavior – provide guidelines for appropriate behavior of bureaucrats  Rules against conflicts of interest  Whistleblower Protections  Protects employees who bring to light misdeeds, fraud, waste etc., against retaliation  Inspectors General – government watchdogs who are embedded in the agency and who monitor implementation and investigate misconduct Bureaucratic Accountability