1. 1 “The use of solar energy has not been opened up because the oil industry does not own the sun.” - Ralph Nader

2. Nonrenewable energy, including fossil fuels and nuclear power, make up the vast majority of the U.S. energy portfolio. In the long-term, there are two major issues with this reliance on nonrenewable energy: Dwindling supplies. Environmental pollution. 2

3. Nonrenewable resources, by definition, are finite and will eventually be used up. Most of the easily recoverable sources of coal, oil, and natural gas have already been tapped. As supplies of these resources tighten, or they become more expensive to extract, price will increase. 3

4. Deep-ocean drilling of oil and hydraulic fracturing of natural gas are examples of resource extraction that would not have been economically viable in the past. 4

5. The extraction, transport, and burning of fossil fuels is also a highly polluting process. 5

6. Fossil fuels have a lot of modern applications. Electricity Fuel for transportation Heat The strategies for replacing them is going to vary for each. 6

7. Electricity works by passing electrons from a power source through a series of wires, called a circuit. Within the circuit there are devices that use the energy released by the electrons to do work (as light, heat, etc) 7

8. Electric power is measured in watts, the rate at which electrons moving through a circuit are doing work. A standard incandescent light bulb consumes 60W of power. A medium-sized car will consume about 100,000W. 8

9. Electricity consumption is measured in kilowatt-hours. This includes both power and running-time. The charge per kilowatt-hour in this bill is 10.7 cents. 9

10. At the rate shown in this bill, running a 60-watt light bulb for an hour would cost… 60watts x 1 kilowatt/ 1000 watts = 0.06 kilowatts 0.06 kilowatt-hours x $0.107/kwh = $0.00642 or 0.662 cents. 10

11. The greatest renewable source of electricity production currently in use is hydroelectricity. 11

12. Hydroelectric power plants use running water to spin a turbine and generate electricity. Hydroelectricity is very economical, with costs per kilowatt-hour similar to coal. No pollution is produced. 12

14. The construction of the dam has major ecological impacts. Regular flooding downstream stops, preventing deposition of silt and nutrients. The reservoir can experience sedimentation, where particles of soil in the river settle to the bottom of the reservoir. The ecosystem immediately behind the dam becomes flooded. River water, when stopped, warms faster and begins to evaporate. Fish and other organisms can no longer move upstream. 14

15. Any cities or villages in the area of the reservoir will have to be abandoned. 15 The Three Gorges Dam in China, completed in 2008, displaced 1.13 million people from the Yangtze River region.

16. Another issue with dams is that they produce a constant, steady stream of electricity that cannot be easily adjusted to meet demand. Some dams have pumped storage, where water will be sent and stored during low-demand times, then returned back through the dam’s turbines when demand is higher. 16 Kinzua Dam and Seneca pumped storage generating station, Mead, PA

17. Wind energy is similar to hydroelectricity, except that moving air provides the force to spin the generator. 17

18. Wind turbines are able to orient themselves to face the oncoming wind. As the air passes through, the blades rotate. These are attached to a shaft, which connects to the turbine. 18

20. A single wind turbine can generate 1-7 megawatts of energy per year, not enough for a large population. Wind farms are large numbers of wind turbines clustered together. 20 The Gansu Wind Farm in China produces 6 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity per year.

21. Wind power is comparable in cost to coal. Possible negative impacts of wind turbines include: Disruption of bird and bat migration pathways. Noise. Disruption of scenery. 21

22. Fig. 16-23, p. 421 TRADE-OFFS Wind Power AdvantagesDisadvantages Moderate to high net energy yield Steady winds needed High efficiency Backup systems needed when winds are low Moderate capital cost Low electricity cost (and falling) Plastic components produced from oil Very low environmental impact Environmental costs not included in market price No CO 2 emissions High land use for wind farm Quick construction Easily expanded Visual pollution Can be located at sea Noise when located near populated areas Land below turbines can be used to grow crops or graze livestock Can kill birds and interfere with flights of migratory birds

23. 23

24. Geothermal power, like nuclear and coal, works by boiling water to steam. Naturally-occurring heat from the Earth is used in place of fuel. At a geothermal plant, two wells are drilled. One injects cold water towards the underground heat. The second directs steam to the turbine. 24

25. Fig. 16-29, p. 428 TRADE-OFFS AdvantagesDisadvantages Geothermal Energy Very high efficiencyScarcity of suitable sites Moderate net energy at accessible sites Can be depleted if used too rapidly Environmental costs not included in market price Lower CO 2 emissions than fossil fuels CO 2 emissions Low cost at favorable sites Moderate to high local air pollution Low land use and disturbance Noise and odor (H 2 S) Moderate environmental impact High cost except at the most concentrated and accessible sources

26. An enormous amount of energy (over 1,000 watts per square meter) hits the Earth every day. This energy is very diffuse, spread out across the entire surface area of the planet. Two separate technologies have been developed to convert solar energy into electricity. 26

27. 27 Parabolic solar collection involves using curved reflective surfaces that collect light and focus it onto a concentrated point. The heat is absorbed and used to boil water into steam, which spins a turbine.

28. 28 Photovoltaic cells capture solar energy and convert it directly to electrical current. Solar electricity tends to be 1.5-2 times the cost of electricity from coal or other renewable sources. Not available on overcast days or at night.

29. Fig. 16-11, p. 412 TRADE-OFFS Passive or Active Solar Heating AdvantagesDisadvantages Energy is free Need access to sun 60% of time Net energy is moderate (active) to high (passive) Sun can be blocked by trees and other structures Quick installation Environmental costs not included in market price No CO 2 emissions Very low air and water pollution Need heat storage system Very low land disturbance (built into roof or windows) Active system needs maintenance and repair High cost (active) Active collectors unattractive Moderate cost (passive)

31. Fig. 16-20, p. 417 TRADE-OFFS Solar Cells Advantages Disadvantages Fairly high net energy yield Need access to sun Work on cloudy days Low efficiency Easily expanded or moved Need electricity storage system or backup Quick installation Environmental costs not included in market price No CO 2 emissions Low environmental impact High costs (but should be competitive in 5–15 years) Low land use (if on roof or built into walls or windows) High land use (solar- cell power plants) could disrupt desert areas Last 20–40 years Reduces dependence on fossil fuels DC current must be converted to AC

32. Electricity generation by solar, wind, hydrokinetic, or geothermal plants is restricted by the natural geography of the United States. 32

33. The Great Plains have the highest average wind speeds and the greatest potential for wind power. 33

34. Areas with significant elevation differences and river courses are ideal for hydroelectricity generation. 34

35. The western states are the most favorable for geothermal energy production. 35

36. The deserts of the southwest are ideal for solar electricity generation. 36

37. Besides electricity, significant amounts of fossil fuels are burned for heat, especially natural gas. 37

38. Traditionally, humans have relied on burning biomass, such as wood, charcoal, and dung as a source of heat. These fuels will replenish, but produce similar levels of pollution to fossil fuels. Excess demand can also lead to deforestation. 38

39. Fig. 16-24, p. 422 TRADE-OFFS Solid Biomass AdvantagesDisadvantages Large potential supply in some areas Nonrenewable if harvested unsustainably Moderate to high environmental impact Moderate costs No net CO 2 increase if harvested, burned, and replanted sustainably Environmental costs not included in market price Increases CO 2 emissions if harvested and burned unsustainably Low photosynthetic efficiency Plantation can be located on semiarid land not needed for crops Soil erosion, water pollution, and loss of wildlife habitat Can make use of agricultural, timber, and urban wastes Often burned in inefficient and polluting open fires and stoves Plantations could compete with cropland Plantation can help restore degraded lands

40. Energy from the sun can also be gathered to use as a source of heat. Passive solar heat structures have no moving parts, but use south-facing windows to gather and absorb as much solar heat as possible. 40

41. 41 Active solar heat structures pump water or another liquid through a collector. Can be used for household radiant heating, or as a source of hot water for showers and cooking. Image source: www.almeriaspas.com

42. The third major energy need is fuel for transportation. Most of the cars, planes, and ships of the world run on petroleum products – gasoline, diesel, etc. 42

43. Vehicles can be run on other fuels besides petroleum- based ones. Biofuels, like ethanol, are generated from using bacteria or yeast to ferment plant matter. Currently, the biggest source of this plant matter is corn. This can influence food prices. 43

44. Fig. 16-25, p. 424 TRADE-OFFS Biodiesel AdvantagesDisadvantages Reduced CO emissions Increased NO x emissions and more smog Reduced CO 2 emissions (78%) Higher cost than regular diesel High net energy yield for oil palm crops Environmental costs not included in market price Low net energy yield for soybean crops Moderate net energy yield for rapeseed crops May compete with growing food on cropland and raise food prices Reduced hydrocarbon emissions Loss and degradation of biodiversity from crop plantations Better gas mileage (40%) Potentially renewable Can make engines hard to start in cold weather

45. Fig. 16-27, p. 426 TRADE-OFFS Ethanol Fuel AdvantagesDisadvantages High octaneLower driving range Low net energy yield (corn) Some reduction in CO 2 emissions (sugarcane bagasse) Higher CO 2 emissions (corn) Much higher cost High net energy yield (bagasse and switchgrass) Environmental costs not included in market price May compete with growing food and raise food prices Reduced CO emissions Higher NO x emissions and more smog Can be sold as E85 or pure ethanol Corrosive Can make engines hard to start in cold weather Potentially renewable

46. Hydrogen fuel cells use a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen gas to generate an electric current. H2 + O2 → H2O Refueling is difficult, as pure hydrogen is a gas and difficult to store and transport safely. No waste products are produced, except for water vapor. 46

47. Fig. 16-31, p. 430 TRADE-OFFS Hydrogen Advantages Fuel cell Disadvantages Can be produced from plentiful water Not found as H 2 in nature Energy is needed to produce fuel Low environmental impact Negative net energy Renewable if produced from renewable energy resources CO 2 emissions if produced from carbon- containing compounds No CO 2 emissions if produced from water Environmental costs not included in market price Good substitute for oil Nonrenewable if generated by fossil fuels or nuclear power Competitive price if environmental and social costs are included in cost comparisons High costs (that may eventually come down) Easier to store than electricity Will take 25 to 50 years to phase in Short driving range for current fuel-cell cars Safer than gasoline and natural gas No fuel distribution system in place Nontoxic High efficiency (45– 65%) in fuel cells Excessive H 2 leaks may deplete ozone in the atmosphere

48. Cars could be indirectly run on renewable energy if they had powerful enough batteries to store a charge needed to run the car for long periods of time. Lead-acid batteries, currently in use, are too large and do not hold enough energy. Nickel-Metal Hydride batteries, used in early generation hybrid cars, have a higher storage capacity, but will quickly lose a stored charge when not in use. Lithium-ion batteries are the smallest and have the best storage capacity, but are also expensive to produce. 48 The Tesla Model S runs on lithium-ion batteries, with a range of 265 miles.

49. Fig. 16-28, p. 427 Basement heat pump

50. 50 In addition to finding alternative, renewable energy sources, it is also important to reduce energy consumption. Energy Efficiency is a measure of the percentage of energy consumed that actually performs the desired work. Incandescent light bulbs: 5-10% efficient Compact fluorescent: 20-33% efficient LED: 40-60% efficient

51. 51 Distributional surcharges are small charges levied on all utility customers to help finance research and development of renewable energy. A renewable portfolio is a state mandated minimum percentage of energy that utilities must get from renewable sources. Green pricing is the practice of some electricity suppliers offering plans (at a premium) that only use renewable sources for electricity. California has enacted a 33 percent renewable portfolio standard set for 2020.

52. 52 The energy star program is a federal initiative to promote and provide incentives for purchasing more efficient devices and appliances.

53. 53 Energy conservation tends to be highly tied to consumer prices. In response to 1970’s oil prices, average U.S. automobile gas-mileage increased from 13 mpg in 1975 to 28.8 mpg in 1988.

54. 54 Falling fuel prices in the 1980s-early 2000s discouraged further improvements in fuel economy. The recent popularity of smaller cars, hybrid cars, and electric cars has improved average MPG again.

56. Fig. 16-33, p. 432 SOLUTIONS Making the Transition to a More Sustainable Energy Future Improve Energy Efficiency More Renewable Energy Increase fuel-efficiency standards for vehicles, buildings, and appliances Greatly increase use of renewable energy Provide large subsidies and tax credits for use of renewable energy Mandate government purchases of efficient vehicles and other devices Include environmental costs in prices for all energy resources Encourage government purchase of renewable energy devices Provide large tax credits or feebates for buying efficient cars, houses, and appliances Greatly increase renewable energy research and development Reduce Pollution and Health Risk Offer large tax credits for investments in energy efficiency Cut coal use 50% by 2020 Phase out coal subsidies Reward utilities for reducing demand for electricity Levy taxes on coal and oil use Greatly increase energy efficiency research and development Phase out nuclear power subsidies, tax breaks, and loan guarantees