1. Chapter 4
Adolescence

2. Physical and Sexual Development
Section 1
Physical and Sexual Development

3. Theories of Adolescence
1904 – G. Stanley Hall
Pioneering theory of adolescence
Represents transitional stage
Something like an animal in a cage
Sees freedom
Doesn’t know when freedom will occur or how
Existing in a state of great “storm and stress”
Marginal being
Confused, troubled, and highly frustrated

4. Other theorists say that adolescence is a period of growth that is in no way discontinuous with childhood or young adulthood
Margaret Mead’s anthropological studies show:
In some cultures – adolescents enjoy this time of life
Storm and stress is a by-product of industrial society
Proposed that culture might play a role in development

5. Psychologist Robert Havigburst
Great physical, mental, and emotional changes are taking place
Facing challenges – developmental tasks that must be mastered
Accept physical makeup and acquire masculine or feminine gender roll
Develop appropriate relations with age-mates of both sexes
Become emotionally independent of parents/adults
Achieve assurance of becoming economically independent
Decide on, prepare for, enter a vocation
Develop cognitive skills/concepts for social competence
Understand & achieve socially responsible behavior
Prepare for marriage and family
Acquire values that are harmonious and appropriate

6. Pattern of development depends upon many factors. Most important
Individual’s adjustment in childhood
Level of adjustment of his/her parents & peers
Changes that occur during adolescence
Marked by major changes
Physical
Social
Emotional
Intellectual

7. Physical Development
Puberty (sexual maturation) marks end of childhood – varies widely
Hormones trigger internal/external changes
Girls b/t 8 and 10 / boys 9-16
Just before puberty, both experience growth spurt (rapid increase in weight & height)
Girls peak at 12, boys at 14
Most societies consider menarche the beginning of womanhood.
Even though boys are 2 years behind, their growth spurt lasts about 3 years longer. They get broader shoulders, thicker trunk, more muscle tissue & larger heart & lungs than girls, voices deepen, and facial hair begins to grow.
Asynchrony is common – uneven growth of body parts

8. Reactions to Growth
Rather sudden bodily changes make an adolescent self-conscious.
Particularly if they are early or late developers.
There is a strong correlation between having a negative body image and depression.
It is very important to measure up to ideal standards.
Most tend to evaluate themselves in terms of their culture’s body ideal.

9. Individual differences in growth significantly affect the personality of young adolescents.
Boys who develop early have an advantage – sports heroes, leaders
Other boys look up to them, girls have crushes, adults treat them as more mature.
As a result, they are generally more self-confident and independent.
Correlation found in adulthood throughout 30s – earlier matured males tend to have higher occupational and social status (weakens as they enter their 40s.
Girls are different for early maturation
Early teens - some feel embarrassed, some date older boys, some become bossy with people their own age
Late bloomers – less quarrelsome, may get along with peers better
In their late teens, early matured girls may be more popular and have a more favorable image
Why such powerful psychological effects?
Self-fulfilling prophecy (boy doesn’t meet culture’s physical ideal/thinks less of himself/doesn’t pursue success as doggedly/bring about failure he feared.

10. Sexual Development
Physical changes are accompanied by changes in behavior.
Adolescence is also a time when a person develops attitudes about the sex and gender roles her or she will fill.

11. Sexual Attitudes
Affect way we feel about sex and the way we respond sexually.
Around the world – wide variations in what children are told about appropriate sexual behavior and how they respond.
Some societies – kept in the dark until marriage
Others – preadolescents encouraged to engage in sexual play, which will foster mature development
U.S. – behavior has not changed since 1970s, but attitudes have
Increase of sexual awareness and activity
About 1 million teen pregnancies occur each year
3 million teen sexually transmitted diseases each year
Fear of AIDS has also impacted sexual attitudes
Many teens today choosing abstinence

12. Discussion
Think back over the stages of your life from childhood to the present.
Which were the best and worst years of your life and why?
Do you think adolescence is a time of “storm and stress”?

13. Section 2 Personal Development
The transition from childhood to adulthood involves changes in patterns of reasoning and moral thinking, and adjustments in personality and sexual behavior.

14. Cognitive Development
During adolescence, thinking patterns characteristic of adults emerge.
Jean Piaget – formal operations – abstract
Expands problem-solving capacity
Can deal with abstractions in own life
Ethics, conformity, and phoniness
Allows for introspection (own motives and thoughts)
Deal with overpowering emotions through rationalization (explain an unpleasant emotion or behavior in a way that will preserve self-esteem)

15. Changes in thinking – changes in personality and social interactions
Become idealistic – imagine the hypothetical
Can grow rebellious
Can develop a “messiah complex” (save the world from evil)
Impatient with adult world’s failures – unrealistic about realities of life
Idealism can keep older adults thinking about how the world needs to change

16. Dr. David Elkind - identified problems developed because of immaturity and abstract thought processes:
Finding fault with authority figures
Argumentativeness (build own viewpoints)
Indecisiveness (aware of many choices)
Apparent hypocrisy (living up to their ideals)
Self-consciousness (think everybody is thinking about them)
Invulnerability (causes risk-taking)
Feel special
Experiences are unique
Not subject to same rules as everyone else

17. Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg – develops in stages
Stage 1 – right or wrong depends on if punished
Stage 2 – positive or negative effects on them
Stage 3 – whether or not socially approved
Stage 4 – sanctioned by established authority
Stage 5 – whether law is fair or just
Stage 6 – concerned with making fair/just decisions
Absolute ethical principles that cannot be broken
More important than laws

18. Higher levels involve abstract thinking – seeing things from another’s point of view
Adolescence is time when formal operations begin
Only about 1 in 10 adolescents reach levels 5 and 6 of moral thinking.
Does not progress much during high school – more when in college (away from home)
Psychologists agree that moral development depends on many factors – most important is relationship with parents/significant others

19. Identity Development Erikson’s Theory of Identity Crisis
Children do not fret about who they are or where going
Erikson’s Theory of Identity Crisis
Establishing identity is key to adolescent development
Adolescents
Identity crisis (inner conflict, worry about identities)
Begin to see future as a reality, not a game
Begin to think about themselves
Only by resolving conflict do they achieve integrated sense of self

20. James Marcia’s view of the identify crisis – 4 attempts to achieve a sense of identity
Identity moratorium adolescents (seriously considering issues, but no commitment)
Identity foreclosure adolescents (firm commitment on suggestion of others not themselves)
Identity confused or diffused adolescents (no thought to making decisions, no real sense of identity)
Identity achievement adolescents (considered many possible identities, freely committed to occupations and other important life matters.

21. Criticisms of Erikson and Marcia
“Crisis” implies overwhelming stress
Implies transition required radical break with childhood experience
Erikson’s view may have been because he focused study on disturbed adolescents who sought clinical treatment.
Adolescents at school picked randomly show no sign of crisis and appear to progress smoothly

22. Social Learning View – Albert Bandura
One continuous process
Individuals develop by interacting with others
Called social learning theory of development
Personality development in adolescents is a complex phenomenon.
Sense of self (identity)
How relationships developed
Social interaction skills
Need to call upon all viewpoints

23. Section 3
Social Development

24. The Role of the Family
A principal developmental task of adolescent is to become independent of family
Mixed feelings on both sides
Some parents reluctant to let children go
Can the child cope with realities of life – child shares the worry also
Young people long to get out on their own – try their skills (worry about failing)
Internal struggle often mirrored in unpredictable behavior (rebellion)

25. The Role of Peers Can trust friends not to treat them like children
Need friends to define themselves
High school fairly rigid hierarchy
Everyone knows who belongs to which group
Usually form along class lines
Many adopt distinct styles to express themselves
Studies show personal characteristics important
Popularity based on good looks and personality
Athletic ability is important factor

26. Belonging to clique is important
Fulfills need for closeness with others
Gives means of establishing an identity
Defines who he is and who he is not
Helps achieve self-confidence
Helps develop sense of independence
Helps clarify values
Helps in experimenting with new roles
Leads to conformity (acting in accordance with some specified authority)

27. Both parents and peers exercise considerable influence in shaping adolescent behavior
Peers set standards on fashion and music and give advice on school-related issues
Parents are more influential on matters of marriage, religion, education plans
Peer groups do not pose a threat to parental authority.
Adolescents tend to pick friends with same values.
Makes them immensely helpful in making the transition from dependent child to independent adult.

28. Difficulties During Adolescence
Majority adjust very quickly to changes
However, teenage suicide has nearly tripled over the last 50 years
May be underestimated (unreported)
Illusion of invulnerability part of egocentrism
Do things with peers would not do alone
Acts of juvenile delinquency typical in some areas
Troubled teens do not outgrow problems
Adults should be concerned with troubled teens

29. Teenage Depression and Suicide
More widespread than most parents or educators suspect
Triggers
Loss of loved one (death, divorce, relocation)
Communication is necessary

30. Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa Refusal to eat
May represent a female’s refusal to grow up or an attempt to assert control over their lives when so much seems out of their control
Treatment – encourage eating and deal with psychological problems
Bulimia nervosa
Binge eating and then purging
May result from person’s feelings of alienation or a need to feel approval from others
Treatment involves antidepressant drugs and therapy

31. Gender Roles and Differences
Section 4
Gender Roles and Differences

32. Gender Identity One’s physical and biological makeup.
Your awareness of being male or female.
Includes genetic traits we have inherited and may include some gender-linked behaviors as well.
By age 2 or 3, kids have labeled themselves boy or girl.
By age 5, have learned thoughts, expectations, and behaviors that accompany their gender role.

33. Gender Roles
Defined partly by genetic makeup but mainly by the society and culture in which the individual lives.
A standard of how a person with a given gender identity is supposed to behave and includes the traditional behaviors that society expects of people because they are male or female.
Vary from one society to another and can change over time within a given society.
Give social meaning to gender identity.

34. Gender Stereotypes
Oversimplified or prejudiced opinions and attitudes concerning the way men or women should behave.
Have their roots deep in a time in our history when a division of labor was necessary for survival.
Sharp gender roles are no longer necessary or appropriate, esp. in the labor force.
Many young people now accept new androgynous roles.
Roles that involve a flexible combination of traditionally male and female characteristics.
Older people tend to be more traditional.

35. Gender Differences in Personality
Exists more in groups
Males are more confident than females (esp. in math & science).
Women perceive themselves as less competent than males (even if same grades).
Aggression (hostile or destructive behavior) is one area with the most significant differences.
Males are more physically aggressive.
Encouraged to be competitive and settle conflicts.
Studies show lower levels of seratonin in males (associated with aggression).
Females are more verbally aggressive and indirectly aggressive (rejection).
Another difference is communication styles.
Men actually talk more than women and interrupt women more while they talk.
Women talk more when they have power in the situation.
Women hedge more (“kind of” and “you know”)
Women use more disclaimers (“I may be wrong.”)
Women use more tag questions at the end (“Okay?”

36. Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Research shows no measurable difference between genders:
At spatial and mathematical skills
At verbal skills
Did find some differences in specific topics and age trends.
Perform about the same in problem solving until high school – then males do better on tests of spatial ability / women do better at tracking objects.
Origins of differences
Biological Theory
Psychoanalytical Theory
Social Learning Theory
Cognitive-Developmental Theory

37. Biological Theory
Emphasizes role of anatomy, hormones, and brain organization.
Regardless of what parents do, boys prefer trucks, girls dolls.
Said that differences in behavior are the result of behaviors that evolved from early men and women (attempt to survive).
Men – find a mate and reproduce – be dominant & aggressive .
Women – raising children – be concerned, warm, sensitive.

38. Psychoanalytical Theory
Little boys identify with their fathers / girls with mothers.
Gender identity results.
Happens between 3 – 5 years old.
Critics argue – this identification is the result, rather than the cause, of gender typing.

39. Social Learning Theory
Emphasizes the role of social and cognitive processes on how we perceive, organize, and use information.
Children learn gender roles by observing and imitating models (parents, friends, peers, etc.).
Models respond to and reward certain behaviors for boys and different behaviors for girls that match their views of traditional male and female gender roles.

40. Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Proposes that children acquire gender roles by interacting with their environment and thinking about those experiences.
This way they learn different sets of standards for male and female behavior.
To learn a gender, child must see himself or herself as male or female.
Then, organizes behavior around this concept.
May acquire preferences consistent with perceived gender.
Watch football, play rough with other boys.
Eventually form gender schema.
Gender schema – mental representation of behavior that helps child organize and categorize behavior.
Develop schemas of how we should act – then behave accordingly

41. Changing Gender Roles Roles of women and men in society are changing.
Women now in the workforce, but:
Studies show there is inequality
Lower levels of leadership positions
Do not advance as quickly
Companies may discriminate
Some women interrupt careers to rear children – lose opportunity for promotions and salary increases.
Men and women may differ in ambition.
Women may be taught by society to set different goals.