1. Critical Reasoning

2. Critical Reasoning Stephen Watson swatson@bond.edu.au
Office in HSS 4234
Consultations tba

3. Critical Reasoning Text
R.J. Fogelin & W. Sinnott-Armstrong (2005) 7th edition Understanding Arguments: an introduction to informal logic

4. Critical Reasoning Further Reading
Cederblom, J. & D. W. Paulsen (c2001) Critical Reasoning
Copi, I. & C. Cohen, (1994), Introduction to Logic

5. Critical Reasoning Assessment Mid-semester Assignment: 35%
Quiz #1  (week 7) 30%
Quiz #2  (week 12) 35%

6. Critical Reasoning Goals
improve critical reading skills required for undergraduate study
improve academic writing skills and the clear presentation of your ideas
assist in the imaginative aspects of thinking necessary to good problem solving.

7. Critical Reasoning Lectures First part of 3 hour block is lectures
Feel free to ask for clarifications during lectures

8. Critical Reasoning Tutorials second part of 3 hour block is a tutorial
Questions from the text or elsewhere will be discussed.
Discussions will be on the material in the lecture just given – so make sure you’re understanding things at the time

9. Aspects of Language

10. No man is an Island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main; if a clod be washed away by the sea, Europe is the less, as well as if a promontory were, as well as if a manor of thy friends or of thine own were; any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankind; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.
John Donne

11. Language and Argument
An argument is the giving of reasons for or against a claim. 
Arguing is a linguistic activity

12. Language and Convention
The language we use to communicate ideas, beliefs, etc. is a matter of convention.     
semantic conventions: words acquire their meaning by convention
syntactic conventions: grammar, is conventional

13. Language and Convention
Language is, however, not arbitrary .     
Communication depends on shared linguistic conventions
The truth or falsity of information communicated is generally not dependent on conventions

14. Levels of Language Language can be used to perform many functions
to convey or request information
to bring things about
to elicit a response in one's audience

15. Linguistic Acts
Language contains many conventions. Two have already been noted
semantic conventions
syntactic conventions
When an utterance satisfies these two conventions we can be said to have performed a linguistic act

16. Linguistic Acts Indicative mood (for a statement of fact)
"He is running."
Interrogative mood (for a question)
"Is he running?"
Imperative mood (for a command)
"Run!"
Expressive mood (for a desire or wish)
"Ah, to be running now!"

17. Speech Acts
A linguistic act is one level at which speech acts can be described ... but there is another level. The level of illocutionary acts

18. Performatives
Certain kinds of utterances — performatives — bring something about, rather than merely describe
A marriage celebrant says
"You are now man and wife"

19. Explicit Performatives
The ‘Thereby’ Test
Utterance U expresses an explicit performative just in case it:
(i) is first-person singular present indicative
(ii) yields a true statement when plugged into the pattern In saying "I ..." I thereby ... .

20. Explicit Performatives
Examples
"I now declare you man and wife"
"I congratulate you"
The saying is a kind of doing

21. Kinds of Speech Acts
Performative utterances are used for (linguistic acts and) speech acts
One and the same linguistic act can do a variety of things — perform a number of speech acts

22. Kinds of Speech Acts Examples "Is there any pizza left?" "Yes"
"Do you promise to pay me back?"  "Yes"
"Do you swear to tell the truth?"       "Yes"
"Do you refuse to leave?"                 "Yes"
The linguistic act of saying "Yes" is used
To state something
To promise
To take an oath
To refuse

23. Kinds of Speech Acts
An illocutionary act is the act that an utterance effects.It is what is done in making the utterance.
E.G. stating, promising, swearing, refusing

24. Kinds of Speech Acts
Different kinds of speech acts are named by the different verbs that occur in explicit performatives
In saying "I promise ..." I thereby promise ...
So promising is a kind of speech act
In saying "I refuse to ..." I thereby refuse to ...
So refusing is a kind of speech act.
These verbs are called performative verbs

25. Kinds of Speech Acts
Not all speech acts are named by performative verbs
The speech act of insulting is not.
'Insult' is not a performative verb.
(Just try the thereby-test to see.).

26. Making Statements
One important kind of speech act is to make statements that are true or false
the speech act of asserting, or stating, or describing

27. Speech act rules
To perform a particular speech act certain conventions may need to be met
The speaker might need to occupy a special position
Special words, gestures or formatting may be required
There may be presupposed facts
A particular response might be required

28. Speech act rules
Though a speech act may have occurred, it can be insincere
Certain feelings or beliefs are expected by the speaker
When you promise someone by saying "I promise" the speech act of     promising occurs, however it can be defective if the speaker is not sincere

29. Perlocutionary Acts
The act of causing an effect in an audience by means of language is a perlocutionary act
"Look out for the tiger snake!"
I perform the linguistic act of saying something meaningful
I perform the illocutionary act of warning you
I perform the perlocutionary act of putting you on guard

30. Conversational Rules
Linguistic acts can be used to perform perlocutionary acts because of assumed conventions or rules
I say “The house is on fire” (linguistic act) and you are alerted (perlocutionary act) because we assume
People generally aim at truth in cooperative conversation
People generally have  evidence for claims they make

31. Conversational Rules
Cooperative conversations are governed by such rules
Hence, cooperative conversations are situations in which conversational acts are commonly performed

32. Conversational Implicature
Because cooperative conversation is governed by rules we can draw conclusions from what someone says without them having to be explicitly stated
"Where does Jo live? "
"In Brisbane somewhere "
Cooperative Rule:  Be as informative as possible.
Implicature: I don't know exactly where Jo lives

33. Conversational Implicature
B conversationally implicated by linguistic act A just in case:
(i)  B is not explicitly stated by A (ii)  B could be false given A (iii) yet B could explain why A is uttered in a cooperative conversation

34. Conversational Implicature
Example
"No one has spoken to Phil all evening"
Conclude C: “No one likes Phil”; but
It is not explicitly stated, and
It could be false. But
It explains why the remark was made

35. Conversational Implicature
Example
"No one has spoken to Phil all evening"
Conclude C: “No one likes Phil”; but
It is not explicitly stated, and
It could be false. But
It explains why the remark was made
So C is an implicature

36. Conversational Implicature
Compare
"No one has spoken to Phil all evening"
Conclude D: “Phil hasn't had a conversation all evening”
D is logically implied (it can’t be false)