1. Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries Lecture 8: Genetics

2. He was born in 1822 in Austria النمسا. In 1854, Mendel began his classic experiments with the garden pea plant نبات البازلاء. He discovered the laws of heredity قوانين الوراثة in plants and animals. He died in 1884 by a kidney disorder. Each pea plant has male (stamens الأسدية ) and female (carpels الكرابل ) sexual organs. In nature, pea plants typically self-fertilize تلقيح ذاتي, fertilizing ova البويضات with their own pollens حبوب اللقاح. However, Mendel could also move pollens from one plant to another to cross- pollinate تلقيح خلطي plants. Mendel’s experimental design

3. Three steps of Mendel’s experimental

4. Mendel concluded that inherited characteristics are controlled by factors that occur in pairs. Mendel also referred to these F1 (first generation) individuals as hybrids هجين ( خليط ) because the offspring النسل were a mixture from parents with different traits. We will refer to these offspring as monohybrids because they are hybrid for only one characteristic. Because all the F1 plants were purples, Mendel referred to purple flower as the dominant trait صفة سائدة and white flower as the recessive trait صفة متنحية. Mendel wondered what happened to the white traits in the F1 generation. Therefore, self-fertilization was done to produce the second generation or F2. This cross produced a 3 purple to 1 white ratio of traits in the F2 offspring. Mendel’s Results and Conclusions

5. The laws of Mendel in genetics 1.First law: Segregation قانون انعزال الصفات 2.Second law: Independent assortment قانون التوزيع الحر First: Law of segregation: The two alleles الأليلات for a characteristic are isolated into separate gametes. Peas exhibit a variety of contrasting traits صفات متضادة ( متباينة ) (seven traits). Mendel found similar 3:1 ratio of two traits (dihybrids) among F 2 offspring when he conducted crosses for six other characteristics, each represented by two different varieties صفتين مختلفتين. For example, when Mendel crossed two true-breeding varieties, one produced round seeds بذور مُستديرة with plant produced wrinkled seeds بذور مُجَعدة, all the F 1 offspring had round seeds, but among the F 2 plants, 75% of the seeds were round and 25% were wrinkled (see the second low in lecture 9).

6. The results of Mendel’s F1 crosses from seven characteristics in pea plants

7. Mendel developed a hypothesis فرضية to explain these results. 1. Alternative version of the same gene is called allele.  Different alleles vary somewhat نوعاً ما in the sequence of nucleotides at the specific locus موقع of a gene. 2. For each characteristic, an organism inherits يرث two alleles, one from each parent.  In the flower-color example, the F1 plants inherited a purple-flower allele from one parent and a white-flower allele from the other.  If the two alleles differ, one of them will be dominant, and the other is recessive.  The two alleles for a characteristics are separated (segregated) into separate gametes and aggregated again by fertilization.

8. The F 1 hybrids will produce two classes of gametes, half with the purple-flower allele and half with the white-flower allele. During self-pollination, the gametes of these two classes unite randomly. This can produce four equally likely combinations of sperm and ovum. A Punnett square مربع بانيت predicts the results of a genetic cross between individuals of known genotype الطراز الـجيني Mendel’s model accounts for the 3:1 ratio in the F2 generation

9. 9 PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp P p P p PPPP PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp pp PP p p 100% 100% Purple F 2 generation 3 : 1 3 Purple : 1 White F 1 generation Recessive allele Dominant allele PPPP pp X PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPpX Pea plant Homozygous Heterozygous

10. Genotype (Genetic make up) PP Phenotype (Colour) PPPP pppp 1) Homozygous PpPpPpPp PpPpPpPp 2) Heterozygous An organism with two identical alleles الأليلات المتماثلة for a characteristic. An organism with two different alleles الأليلات المختلفة for a characteristic. Phenotype: الطراز المظهري A description of an organism’s appearance مظهر Genotype: الطراز الجيني A description of an organism’s genetic makeup التركيب الجيني. Genotype may be either: متماثل الجينات متباين الجينات

11. For flower color in peas, both PP and Pp plants have the same phenotype (purple) but different genotypes (homozygous and heterozygous). The only way to produce a white phenotype is to be homozygous recessive (pp) for the flower-color gene. Genotypic ratio: النسبة الجينية The expected numbers of different genotypes. Phenotypic ratio: النسبة المظهرية The expected numbers of different phenotypes Phenotypic and genotypic ratios

12. By Test cross: Crosses any organism with a recessive homozygote, can determine the identity of the unknown allele. Question: What is the result of crossing between plants with purple and white flowers? How could Mendel determine the F2 genotype as either homozygous dominant or heterozygous?