1. AP Psychology Alice F. Short Hilliard Davidson High School
Learning Chapter 6
AP Psychology
Alice F. Short
Hilliard Davidson High School

2. Chapter Preview Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
Factors That Affect Learning
Learning and Health and Wellness

3. Types of Learning
learning - a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
behaviorism – a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping
associative learning / conditioning – learning that occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between two events
observational learning – learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior

4. Types of Associative Learning
classical conditioning – learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
operant conditioning – (a.k.a. instrumental conditioning) a form of associative learning in which the consequences of behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence
operant  references behavior of the ORGANISM

5. Classical Conditioning: Terminology
helps to explain involuntary behavior
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
unconditioned response (UCR)
neutral stimulus (NS)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
conditioned response (CR)

6. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

7. Classical Conditioning: Terminology
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
unconditioned response (UCR) – an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus (NS) – a stimulus that does not elicit an unconditioned response
conditioned stimulus (CS) – a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR) – the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing

8. Classical Conditioning: Procedure
acquisition
UCS produces a UCR (reflex)
neutral stimulus (NS) paired with a UCS
after pairings, NS produces a CR
the NS has become a CS
contiguity – time between CS and UCS
contingency – is CS regularly followed by the UCS?

9. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
Unlearned/Reflexive
UCS – meat powder
UCR – dog salivates
NS – sound of Pavlov’s bell (prior to pairings with meat powder)
Learned
CS – sound of Pavlov’s bell
CR – dog salivates

10. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov

11. Classical Conditioning
Generalization
CRs may appear after various NS that are similar to the CS
Discrimination
CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs
discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS

12. Classical Conditioning
Extinction
CR is weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food, and the dog stopped salivating
Spontaneous Recovery
CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning
when Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated
Renewal
recovery of the CR when organism is placed in novel context

13. Classical Conditioning

14. Classical Conditioning: Applications
Phobias
Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert
white rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS)
Counterconditioning
associate CS with new, incompatible CR
CS paired with new UCS
aversive conditioning – a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
antabuse – a drug treatment for alcoholism since 1940s

15. Classical Conditioning: Applications
placebo effect – the effect of a substance or procedure (such as taking a pill) that is used as a control to identify the actual effects of a treatment (example: drop in pain)
immune (disease) and endocrine (hormones) responses
immunosuppression – a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person’s ability to fight disease
sympathetic nervous system (part of autonomic nervous system that responds to stress)
taste aversion
between taste and nausea
unique (only 1 pairing required)
advertising – associative learning
drug habituation – decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation
preparing – body “braces” self

16. A SHORT Time to Ponder
How might parents and schools accidently condition undesirable behaviors? Relate this to immunosuppression.
Could you condition yourself to eat healthy? How?
What routines do you have that might be triggering unconscious conditioned responses? Think habituation and preparing.

17. A SHORT Activity
With a partner or group of three, create a table or diagram in your spiral to explain the placebo effect using classical conditioning terminology.
With the same partner or group of three, create a table or diagram in your spiral to explain the advertising of a specific product using classical conditioning terminology.

18. Operant Conditioning
operant conditioning – (a.k.a. a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence
operant  references behavior of the organism
better explains voluntary behaviors
the consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence

19. Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect B.F. Skinner
consequence strengthens or weakens a S – R connection
behaviors (reactions) followed by positive outcomes are strengthened
behaviors (reactions) followed by negative outcomes are weakened
not technically operant conditioning
“trial and accidental success”
B.F. Skinner
expanded on Thorndike’s work
named operant conditioning
shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior)
“You have permission to be as smart as a seeing eye dog.” - Mr. Hickey

20. B.F. Skinner
“I did not direct my life. I didn't design it. I never made decisions. Things always came up and made them for me. That's what life is.”
“Give me a child and I'll shape him into anything.”
“The consequences of an act affect the probability of its occurring again.”
“The real problem is not whether machines think but whether men do.”
“Society attacks early, when the individual is helpless.”

21. Skinner Box

22. Skinner Box (1930s)
Developed by B. F. Skinner, a Skinner box is a chamber that contains a bar or key that an animal can press or manipulate in order to obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement.
recorded each response provided by the animal
recorded unique schedule of reinforcement that the animal was assigned
design of Skinner boxes
varied depending upon the type of animal and the experimental variables.
chamber that includes at least one lever, bar, or key that the animal can manipulate
lever is pressed, food, water, or some other type of reinforcement might be dispensed
Other stimuli can also be presented including lights, sounds, and images. In some instances, the floor of the chamber may be electrified.
purpose of a Skinner box -could carefully study behavior in a very controlled environment.
Example  determine which schedule of reinforcement led to the highest rate of response in the study subjects
- removes human error

23. B.F. Skinner 4 Ways to Shape Behavior
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
positive punishment
negative punishment

24. Comparing Operant Procedures

25. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
reinforcement – the process by which a rewarding stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again
Reinforcement increases behavior.
positive reinforcement increases behavior
negative reinforcement increases behavior
Positive Reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence
rewarding stimulus is “added”
example: telling joke – listener laughing
Negative Reinforcement
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”
example: putting on gloves  cold gone

26. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
positive reinforcement increases behavior
negative reinforcement increases behavior

27. Principles of Reinforcement: Avoidance Reinforcement
Avoidance Reinforcement – an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response
…by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be avoided
Example: previously failed test  studying a lot in the future  avoid future failing grades

28. Principles of Reinforcement: Learned Helplessness
Learned Helplessness - an organism’s learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes
…an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes
Example: student fails in school whether studies or not  student gives up on studying  if student studied now would be successful (different class, gained additional skills, etc.) but continues to give up on trying

29. 2 Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers
innately satisfying
pleasurable w/o learning
examples: food, water, sexual satisfaction
Secondary Reinforcers
learned / conditioned reinforcer
become satisfying through experience (learning)
repeated association with a pre-existing reinforcer
token economy – behaviors are rewarded with tokens (such as poker chips or stars on a chart) that can be exchanged later for desired rewards (such as candy or money)
examples: grades, paychecks

30. Schedules of Reinforcement
Generalization (in operant conditioning)
performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
responding occurs to similar stimuli
Discrimination (in operant conditioning)
responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced
Extinction (in operant conditioning)
behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
Spontaneous Recovery

31. Schedules of Reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement – specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
Continuous Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement (vocabulary)
fixed  set
variable  not set / unpredictable
ratio  #
interval  time

32. 4 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors
not used in casinos (problem / beat system)
Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (e.g., an average)
used in casinos: consistent, but not predictable
resistant to extinction
Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed
behavior increases before anticipated event
example: elections
Variable Interval (VI)
reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed
example: pop quizzes

33. Schedules of Reinforcement

34. Punishment punishment decreases behavior. Positive Punishment
behavior followed by aversive consequence
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
Negative Punishment
rewarding stimulus is “removed”
example: timeout; jail (freedom removed)

35. Punishment
punishment – a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur

36. Comparing Operant Procedures

37. Controversy Over Punishment
corporal punishment
used by 70-90% of parents in the U.S.
correlational research studies
problems associated with punishment
why should parents avoid spanking?
is physical punishment necessary?

38. Operant Conditioning: Timing of Consequences
immediate versus delayed reinforcement
immediate versus delayed punishment
immediate versus delayed reinforcement and punishment
obesity; smoking; drinking

39. Operant Conditioning: Applied Behavior Analysis
behavior modification
work and school performance
training autistic children
to instruct individuals on effective parenting
to enhance environmentally conscious behaviors (recycling, not littering)
to promote workplace safety
to improve self control

40. Observational Learning
learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior (modeling)
Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
four processes
attention
retention
motor reproduction
reinforcement
vicarious reinforcement
vicarious punishment

41. Observational Learning: Bandura’s Model of Observational Learning
observational learning – learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior

42. Albert Bandura… and Bobo Clowns, which are creepy…
Bobo doll experiment (1961, 63) - experiments conducted by Albert Bandura studying children's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll
There are different variations
measured the children's behavior after seeing the model get rewarded, punished or experience no consequence for beating up the bobo doll
empirical demonstration of Bandura's social learning theory It shows that people not only learn by being rewarded or punished itself (behaviorism), they can learn from watching somebody being rewarded or punished, too (observational learning)
important because they sparked many more studies on the effects of observational learning
practical implication, e.g. how children can be influenced watching violent media

43. Cognitive Factors in Learning: E.C. Tolhman (1932)
purposiveness – the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed
studying
behavior does not illustrate purpose (college, etc.)
Purposive Behavior in Humans
goal directed
goal setting
self-regulation and self-monitoring

44. Cognitive Factors in Learning
expectancy learning
information value
expectancies – acquired from people’s experience with their environment
latent learning / implicit learning – unreinforced learning that is immediately reflected in behavior
latent = stored cognitively
evident when you walk around a new setting to get a “lay of the land”
DISCUSSION: How can latent learning and learning the “lay of the chapter” influence success in AP Psychology?

45. Cognitive Factors in Learning: Insight Learning
insight learning – a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem
requires thinking “outside the box”… or “outside the bun”
setting aside previous expectations and assumptions
Wolfgang Kohler
the stick problem
the box problem

46. Cognitive Factors in Learning: Wolfgang Kohler and Insight Learning
the box problem and the stick problem

47. A SHORT Time to Ponder: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Do cognitions matter?
Does learning involve more than environment-behavior connections?

48. Other Factors in Learning
Biological Constraints
instinctive drift – the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
preparedness – the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not in others
taster aversion in humans
fear of snakes in most animals (b/c they are creepy)

49. Other Factors in Learning
Cultural Influences
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning = universal
culture 
influences degree
example: Mexican American students prefer observational learning; Euro-American students direct instruction
influences content (geography, religion, etc.)

50. Other Factors in Learning: Psychological Constraints
mindset: fixed v. growth
mindset – the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn
fixed mindset – believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change
failure = lack of ability
… still failing
growth mindset (incremental theory) - believe their qualities can change and improve through their effort
failure = what you need to learn
… showing growth
developing a growth mindset
Understand that you intelligence and thinking skills are not fixed but can change.
Become passionate about learning and stretch your mind in challenging situations.
Think about the growth mindsets of people you admire.
Begin now.

51. Learning and Health and Wellness
Factors influencing degree of stress
predictability of stressor
control over stressor
improvement of (reduction in) stressor
outlets for frustration

52. Chapter Summary Explain what learning is.
Describe classical conditioning.
Discuss operant conditioning.
Understand observational learning.
Discuss the role of cognition in learning.
Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in learning.
Describe how principles of learning apply to health and wellness.

53. Chapter Summary
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
Classical Conditioning
association between two stimuli
terminology: CS, CR, UCS, UCR
generalization and discrimination
extinction and spontaneous recovery
phobias and counterconditioning

54. Chapter Summary Operant Conditioning Observational Learning
stimulus - response - consequence
positive and negative reinforcement
positive and negative punishment
schedules of reinforcement
Observational Learning
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement

55. Chapter Summary Cognitive Factors in Learning
purposive behavior
insight learning
Other Factors in Learning
biological, cultural, psychological constraints
Learning and Health and Wellness
variables aggravating stress