1. Clauses and sentences Solving doubts about clauses Introduction to sentences

2. Complement Complement = complemento predicativo Complemento = object C. diretto = direct object C. di specificazione = genitive case C. di termine = dative case C. indiretto = indirect object C. oggetto = direct object (Picchi, Grande dizionario di inglese, Hoepli)

3. Complemento predicativo C. predicativo del soggetto = un nome o un aggettivo riferito al soggetto che completa il significato del predicato. I verbi che lo richiedono obbligatoriamente si dicono copulativi. C. predicativo dell’oggetto = un nome o un aggettivo riferito al c. oggetto che completa il significato del predicato. (Serianni, Italiano, Garzanti)

4. Predicative Subject complement = subject predicative Object complement = object predicative You can use these terms if you wish to avoid confusion with the term ‘complement’ Complement element = the element of a clause which follows a copular verb such as be or seem

5. Ex. 7 p. 179 explained (try to do it before you read!) John Terry has scored his first goal as England Captain Clause elements: John Terry = subject (S) has scored = verb (V) his first goal as England Captain = object (O) as England Captain is NOT a complement (predicative) > it doesn’t follow a copular verb and it doesn’t provide completeness to the clause. It simply postmodifies the NP which head word is “goal”

6. Ex. 7 p. 179 explained (try to do it before you read!) Are you feeling better today Clause elements: You = subject (S) Are feeling = verb (V) [are = verb operator] better = complement (C s ) (subject predicative > feel is a copular verb) today = adverbial (A) (adv P > adverb of time)

7. Ex. 7 p. 179 explained (try to do it before you read!) I think they’ve arrived by now Clause elements: I = subject (S) think = verb (V) they’ve arrived by now = object (O) they (S) have arrived (V) by now (A)

8. Ex. 7 p. 179 explained (try to do it before you read!) The pyramids of Egypt are much bigger than I imagined (C) Clause elements: The pyramids of Egypt = subject (S) [of [Egypt NP] PP] are = verb (V) much bigger than I imagined = complement (C s ) [comparative clause] than I Imagined than-clause

9. Ex. 7 p. 179 explained (try to do it before you read!) The woman who lives next door showed me her new computer Clause elements: The woman who lives next door = subject (S) who (S) lives (V) next door (A) required for the complementation of live showed = verb (V) me = indirect object (O i ) her new computer = direct object (O d )

10. Other examples Mary is in the house Mary (S) is (V) in the house (A place ) Mary is kind Mary (S) is (V) kind (C s ) > subject predicative

11. Other examples Somebody caught the ball Somebody (S) caught (V) the ball (O d ) I put the plate on the table I (S) put (V) the plate (O d ) on the table (A place )

12. Other examples We have proved him a fool We (S) have proved (V) him (O d ) a fool (C o ) > object predicative She gives me expensive presents She (S) gives (V) me (O i ) expensive presents (O d )

13. Optional adverbials Sometimes she sings beautifully Sometimes (A) she (S) sings (V) beautifully (A) (optional adverbials in green) In America most students are now on vacation In America (A) most students (S) are (V) now (A) on vacation (A)

14. Other examples She kindly sent us some photographs She (S) kindly (A) sent (V) us (O i ) some photographs (O d )

15. Transformational relations Many critics disliked the play Many critics (S) disliked (V) the play (O d ) The play was disliked (by many critics) The play (S) was disliked (V) by many critics (A)

16. Transformational relations Queen Victoria considered him a genius Queen Victoria (S) considered (V) him (O d ) a genius (C o ) He was considered a genius by Queen Victoria He (S) was considered (V) a genius (C s ) by Queen Victoria (A)

17. Transformational relations My father gave me this watch My father(S) gave (V) me (O i ) this watch (O d ) This watch was given me by my father This watch (S) was given (V) me (O i ) by my father (A) I was given this watch by my father I (S) was given (V) this watch (O d ) by my father (A)

18. Homework http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/home.htm

19. Sentence a sentence must consist of at least one clause (main clause) When we talk about sentences we are talking about structural principles rather than written conventions I agreed to go with them. Although I wasn’t really happy with the idea. It will be all right, I shan’t have to stay here, even now Neither spoken nor written language will necessarily divide neatly into sentences

20. Sentence types FORM FUNCTION declarative> statement You’re wearing a new dress. interrogative> question Are you wearing a new dress? imperative> directive Buy yourself a new dress! exclamative> exclamation What a lovely dress you’re wearing!

21. Form and function ● form and function do not always correspond ● That coffee’s very hot ● statement (after touching the coffee pot) ● exclamation (after having gulped down a mouthful) ● command (to prevent a child from touching it) ● It is important to maintain a clear distinction between the form and the function

22. Declarative sentences declarative sentences are normally used to make a statement declarative sentences typically have an overt subject, a verb element and any necessary verb complementation declarative sentences may also have optional adverbials Philip will visit his dentist in London today declarative sentences are the most common structures we use in language

23. Interrogative sentences interrogative sentences are normally used to ask a question yes-no questions Are you happy? wh-questions Where do you live? interrogative sentences usually have an interrogative structure which implies a subject- operator inversion The first (or only) auxiliary which is used to make interrogative sentences is labeled operator > it is the one that carries tense

24. Wh-questions wh-questions require subject-operator inversion but they also involve the substitution of a sentence element with a wh-word and the bringing of this element to the front The thief (S) took (V) my wallet(O) What (O) did (V op ) the thief (S) take (V)? when the subject (S) of a sentence is substituted with a wh-word, no inversion takes place Who married Jack?

25. Homework Read Ballard’s book, pages 146 -152 (7.1 – 7.4)