America’s History Seventh Edition

America’s History Seventh Edition
James A. Henretta Rebecca Edwards Robert O. Self America’s History Seventh Edition CHAPTER 12 The South Expands: Slavery and Society, Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

Chapter Learning Objectives After you have read this chapter, your should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How did the domestic slave trade function in the United States, and how did it impact African American people? 2. How was power distributed in southern white society? 3. In what ways did African Americans express spirituality during the slavery era? 4. What were the most important aspects of slave society and culture? 5. What were the challenges and opportunities experienced by the free black community? D Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.

1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph?
(Answer: four, possibly five.) 2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? (Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner.)

1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph? Answer: four, possibly five. 1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph? (Answer: four, possibly five.) 2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? (Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner.)

2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? 1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph? (Answer: four, possibly five.) 2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? (Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner.)

2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner 1. How many generations of slaves can you identify in this 1862 photograph? (Answer: four, possibly five.) 2. In your opinion, why did traveling photographer Timothy O’Sullivan choose to photograph this slave family? (Answer: South Carolina seceded in 1860 yet this family remains on plantation, several generations have been allowed to stay together by the owner.)

I. Creating the Cotton South
The Domestic Slave Trade ( ) 115,000 Africans imported 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves. The Upper South Exports Slaves black population grew naturally in the Chesapeake traders began selling to planters in the Deep South by 1860 more than 400,000 slaves were traded from Virginia alone transfers and sales took place slaves given to grown white children settling in the western slave territories by 1860 majority of slaves lived in the Deep South (Georgia to Texas) many transports worked the sugar plantations in Louisiana – “place of slaughter” Chesapeake planters increased their wealth substantially through sales. 2. The Impact on Blacks “Deep South” in dark red Creating the Cotton South The Domestic Slave Trade ( : 115,000 Africans imported; 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended; illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) The Upper South Exports Slaves – black population grew naturally in the Chesapeake; traders began selling to planters in the Deep South; by 1860 more than 400,000 slaves were traded from Virginia alone; transfers and sales took place; slaves given to grown white children settling in the western slave territories; by 1860 majority of slaves lived in the Deep South (Georgia to Texas); many transports worked the sugar plantations in Louisiana – “place of slaughter”; Chesapeake planters increased their wealth substantially through sales. The Impact on Blacks – domestic trade revealed how vulnerable slave population was as “property”; approximately one-quarter slave marriages were destroyed by trade; separated one-third children under age 14 from their parents; family ties were strong among slaves, despite conditions; planters often viewed themselves as “benevolent masters” caring for their “family,” including their slaves; often argued they only sold those who were difficult; few questioned the morality of the trade. 7

The Domestic Slave Trade ( ) 115,000 Africans imported 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) 2. The Impact on Blacks domestic trade revealed how vulnerable slave population was as “property” approximately one-quarter slave marriages were destroyed by trade separated one-third children under age 14 from their parents family ties were strong among slaves, despite conditions planters often viewed themselves as “benevolent masters” caring for their “family,” including their slaves often argued they only sold those who were difficult few questioned the morality of the trade. Creating the Cotton South The Domestic Slave Trade ( : 115,000 Africans imported; 1809 – U.S. participation in Atlantic trade ended; illegal importation through Florida and Texas continued through 1869, bringing 50,000 slaves.) The Upper South Exports Slaves – black population grew naturally in the Chesapeake; traders began selling to planters in the Deep South; by 1860 more than 400,000 slaves were traded from Virginia alone; transfers and sales took place; slaves given to grown white children settling in the western slave territories; by 1860 majority of slaves lived in the Deep South (Georgia to Texas); many transports worked the sugar plantations in Louisiana – “place of slaughter”; Chesapeake planters increased their wealth substantially through sales. The Impact on Blacks – domestic trade revealed how vulnerable slave population was as “property”; approximately one-quarter slave marriages were destroyed by trade; separated one-third children under age 14 from their parents; family ties were strong among slaves, despite conditions; planters often viewed themselves as “benevolent masters” caring for their “family,” including their slaves; often argued they only sold those who were difficult; few questioned the morality of the trade. 8

CHARTS ENLARGED ON NEXT TWO SLIDES
Cotton Production and Producers, 1800–1860 Until the mid-1830s, most cotton was grown in Georgia and South Carolina (7 and 8 in the lower graph) and production increased at a steady pace. Then came a series of dramatic changes. By the early 1840s, those southeastern states grew only one-third of the cotton because planters had moved hundreds of thousands of slaves to the Mississippi Valley (Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama – 4, 5, and 6 in the lower graph). Simultaneously, production burst upward in a series of leaps, reaching 2 million bales a year by the mid-1840s, 3 million by the mid-1850s, and 4 million on the eve of the Civil War. Source: Historical Statistics of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1957), Sec. K 534; lower graph adapted from Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, “‘Wait a Cotton Picking Minute’: A New View of Slave Productivity” (unpublished paper, 2005), Fig. 5. CHARTS ENLARGED ON NEXT TWO SLIDES

Distribution of the Slave Population in 1790, 1830, and 1860
The cotton boom shifted many African Americans to the Old Southwest. In 1790, most slaves lived and worked on Chesapeake tobacco and Carolina rice and indigo plantations.

By 1830, hundreds of thousands of enslaved blacks were laboring on the cotton and sugar lands of the Lower Mississippi Valley and on cotton plantations in Georgia and Florida.

Three decades later, the centers of slavery lay along the Mississippi River and in an arc of fertile cotton land—the “black belt”—sweeping from Mississippi through Georgia.

Forced Migration of Slaves from the Upper South to the Lower South, 1790–1860
The cotton boom that began in the 1810s set in motion a vast redistribution of the African American population. Between 1790 and 1860, white planters moved or sold more than a million slaves from the Upper to the Lower South, a process that broke up families and long-established black communities.

The Internal Slave Trade
Mounted whites escort a convoy of slaves from Virginia to Tennessee in Lewis Miller’s Slave Trader, Sold to Tennessee (1853). For white planters, the interstate trade in slaves was lucrative; it pumped money into the declining Chesapeake economy and provided young workers for the expanding plantations of the cotton belt. For blacks, it was a traumatic journey, a new Middle Passage that broke up their families and communities. “Arise, Arise and weep no more, dry up your tears, we shall part no more,” the slaves sing hopefully as they journey to new lives in Tennessee.

The Business of Slavery
In the 1850s, Virginia slaves were still being “sold south.” This painting, Slave Auction in Richmond, Virginia (1852), captures the pensive and apprehensive emotions of the women and the discontent of the man, none of whom can control their fate. Whites – plantation overseer, slave trader, top-hatted aristocratic planter – lurk in the background, where they are completing the commercial transaction. The illustration on page 369, a public notice for a slave auction to be held in Iberville, Louisiana, advertises “24 Head of Slaves” as if they were cattle – a striking commentary on the business of slavery.

1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave?
(Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress.) 2, What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? (Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations.)

1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave?
Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress. 1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave? (Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress.) 2, What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? (Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations.)

2. What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business?
1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave? (Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress.) 2, What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? (Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations.)

2. What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business?
Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations. 1. According to this advertisement, what qualities were particularly valuable in a slave? (Answer: accustomed to sugar plantation work; skilled in an occupations such as cooper, brick maker, coachman, seamstress.) 2, What evidence does this ad provide that slavery was a business? (Answer: “head of slaves” is similar to descriptions in sales of livestock; pricing of families and individuals for sale; ages and genders of slaves listed with occupations; slaves appear to be valued based on age, gender, and occupations.)

The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states) aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers lived extravagantly rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South production of goods changed with migration and transfers tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. 2. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” 3. Cotton Entrepreneurs Creating the Cotton South The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry – expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states); aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity; men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers; lived extravagantly; rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South; production of goods changed with migration and transfers; tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” – planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition”; some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land; attempted to shape slaves’ behavior; used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. Cotton Entrepreneurs – less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists; slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously; unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive; “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace; by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year.

A Louisiana Plantation, 1861 This view of the St
A Louisiana Plantation, 1861 This view of the St. John plantation in Louisiana by Marie Adrien Persac, a French-born artist, presents an exquisitely detailed but romanticized vision of the planter lifestyle. Well-dressed slaves stand amid neatly spaced rows of cotton as the women of the household prance by on well-groomed horses. Off to the right, smoke rises from the chimneys of a small mill, probably used to process the sugarcane grown elsewhere on the plantation.

B. The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) 2. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition” some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land attempted to shape slaves’ behavior used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. Creating the Cotton South The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry – expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states); aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity; men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers; lived extravagantly; rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South; production of goods changed with migration and transfers; tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” – planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition”; some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land; attempted to shape slaves’ behavior; used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. Cotton Entrepreneurs – less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists; slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously; unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive; “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace; by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year.

B. The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) 3. Cotton Entrepreneurs less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year. Creating the Cotton South The Dual Cultures of the Planter Elite (Approx. 3,000 families owned more than 100 slaves each.) The Traditional Southern Gentry – expansion split the plantation elite: traditional Old South aristocrats (wealth from rice and tobacco, lived in Chesapeake, South Carolina, Georgia) and capitalists/planters (cotton-producing states); aristocrats married their children to one another to maintain privileged identity; men were planters, merchants, lawyers, newspaper editors, ministers; lived extravagantly; rice planters were wealthiest in the Chesapeake and Old South; production of goods changed with migration and transfers; tobacco farmers moved west to gain wealth from cotton. The Ideology and Reality of “Benevolence” – planter aristocracy defended slavery as a “positive good” or “normal condition”; some required slaves to attend church services, building churches on their land; attempted to shape slaves’ behavior; used religion to justify slavery; many absentee slaveowners lived in urban areas. Cotton Entrepreneurs – less extravagance in the Deep South among capitalists; slavery was more harsh in this region and slaves resisted the system more vigorously; unlike in the Chesapeake where slaves gained other skills, cotton production was labor intensive; “gang-labor system” (1820s) meant to increase output and keep slaves working at a steady pace; by 1840s gangs were producing approximately 4 million bales of cotton/year. “gang-labor system”

1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. 1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. (Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly.) 2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? (Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort.)

1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly. 1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. (Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly.) 2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? (Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort.)

2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars?
1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. (Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly.) 2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? (Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort.)

2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars?
Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort. 1. Considering what you know about slavery in the South, speculate on the circumstances that could have led to this man’s physical condition. (Answer: insubordinate behavior, attempted escape, failure to complete work, completing work too slowly.) 2. Why might Union soldiers have chosen to photograph Gordon’s scars? (Answer: publicizing such an obvious example of the brutality of slavery during the Civil War undoubtedly would have provoked response by northerners against the institution of slavery; depending upon the political convictions of the soldiers who photographed this man, they may have wanted to encourage support of emancipation and not just restoration of the Union through the war effort.)

Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) 1. Planter Elites approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. 2. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen 3. Poor Freemen The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) 2. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen Majority owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. 3. Poor Freemen The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Poor Freemen propertyless whites with no social mobility slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

The Settlement of Texas 1. The Austins Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821 son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region “war party” wanted independence. 2. “Remember the Alamo” Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren. Stephen F. Austin and dog

Starting Out in Texas Thousands of white farmers, some owning a few slaves, moved onto small farms in Texas and Arkansas during the 1840s and They lived in crudely built log huts; owned a few cows, horses, and oxen; and eked out a meager living by planting a few acres of cotton in addition to their crops of corn. Their aspirations were simple: to achieve modest prosperity during their lives and to leave their property to their children.

1. What message does this illustration project?
(Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting.) 2. Imagine it is You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? (Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed.)

1. What message does this illustration project?
Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting 1. What message does this illustration project? (Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting.) 2. Imagine it is You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? (Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed.)

2. Imagine it is You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? 1. What message does this illustration project? (Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting.) 2. Imagine it is You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? (Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed.)

2. Imagine it is You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed. 1. What message does this illustration project? (Answer: the men in the picture are portrayed as fighting bravely and gallantly, climbing ladders to repel the charge of Mexicans at the wall, waving the flag of Texas amidst the fighting.) 2. Imagine it is You are an American seeing this depiction of the fighting at the Alamo in your local newspaper. What might you conclude about the situation in Texas based solely on this drawing? (Answer: no clear understanding of the complex political situation between Mexico, the United States, and the Texans; Americans viewing this illustration might have a false sense of the military situation given that all 250 Americans who fought at the Alamo were killed.)

The Settlement of Texas “Remember the Alamo” political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’ Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren. Creating the Cotton South Planters, Smallholding Yeomen, and Tenants (By 1860 only about 25% of whites in the South owned slaves, down from 36% in 1830.) Planter Elites – approximately 5% of white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves; “substantial proprietors” 20% of population and owned 6-20 slaves each; lawyers had wealth, either owned slaves or managed the financial affairs of those who did. Smallholding Planters and Yeomen – majority; owned 1-5 slaves and less than 100 acres of land; wanted more land but either couldn’t afford it or were waiting to inherit it from fathers; wives of yeomen had little power, losing all legal identity at marriage; women participated in Baptist and Methodist Evangelical churches at a rate of 2/1 over men; white landowners in this class worked alongside slaves. Poor Freemen – propertyless whites with no social mobility; slaveowners refused to pay taxes to fund public schools; poor white men struggled to get jobs that required labor because landowners preferred slave labor; served in slave patrols as a requirement of citizenship even if they did not own slaves; psychological satisfaction that they were “higher” than blacks in southern society; when possible, migrated to west of the Appalachian Mountains, where they hoped to establish a home/farm with family members. The Settlement of Texas The Austins – Moses Austin received a land grant and Mexican citizenship when he moved to the region after Mexico was granted independence in 1821; son Stephen followed him and received approximately 180,000 acres, which he sold; 1835 nearly 30,000 Americans (white and some black slaves) were living in what is today eastern and central Texas; S. Austin led the “peace party” of settlers who accepted Mexican rule but wanted political autonomy for Americans in the region; “war party” wanted independence. “Remember the Alamo” – political differences continued between Americans and President Santa Ana who wanted to impose his authority throughout Mexico; March 2, 1836, “war party” began a rebellion, supported by the Americans in Texas; after Americans were defeated at the Alamo in San Antonio, newspapers published romantic descriptions of the fighting men and called for Americans to “Remember the Alamo”’; Americans went to Texas to fight under General Sam Houston; April 1836 Battle of San Jacinto led to independence; debate began in the U.S. over whether to annex Texas, desired by the people there but not President Van Buren.

The Politics of Democracy 1. The Politics of Taxation debate in Alabama over taxation Democrats wanted low taxes, Whigs wanted higher taxes to provide subsidies for banks, canals, roads Whigs appealed to the common people Alabama legislators appealed to slave owners who had money and power in the state % of state revenue came from taxes on slaves and land Alabama viewed as a state that taxed democratically more often, yeomen bore the burden of taxation in southern states. 2. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity Creating the Cotton South The Politics of Democracy The Politics of Taxation – debate in Alabama over taxation; Democrats wanted low taxes, Whigs wanted higher taxes to provide subsidies for banks, canals, roads; Whigs appealed to the common people; Alabama legislators appealed to slaveowners who had money and power in the state; % of state revenue came from taxes on slaves and land; Alabama viewed as a state that taxed democratically; more often, yeomen bore the burden of taxation in southern states. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity – two extremes: extreme hardship, poverty for African Americans vs. wealth and prosperity for white planters; South had a higher per capita income than France and Germany; compared to North, a lower standard of living; focus on land and agriculture, not on new technology of the 19th century: factories, machine tools, steel plows, crushed gravel roads, water and steam-powered factories were all part of life in the industrial North; urban growth in the North was limited in the South to New Orleans, St. Louis, and Baltimore; few immigrants to the South because of lack of opportunity; by % of southerners still worked in agriculture.

The Politics of Democracy As American men asserted their claim to a voice in government affairs, politicians catered to their prejudices and preferences. And they took their message to voters, wherever they found them. This detail from George Caleb Bingham’s Stump Speaking (1855) shows a well-dressed politician on an improvised stage seeking the votes of an audience of farmers—identified by their broad-brimmed hats and casual clothes.

The Politics of Democracy 2. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity two extremes: extreme hardship, poverty for African Americans vs. wealth and prosperity for white planters South had a higher per capita income than France and Germany compared to North, a lower standard of living focus on land and agriculture, not on new technology of the 19th century: factories, machine tools, steel plows, crushed gravel roads, water and steam-powered factories were all part of life in the industrial North urban growth in the North was limited in the South to New Orleans, St. Louis, and Baltimore few immigrants to the South because of lack of opportunity by % of southerners still worked in agriculture. Creating the Cotton South The Politics of Democracy The Politics of Taxation – debate in Alabama over taxation; Democrats wanted low taxes, Whigs wanted higher taxes to provide subsidies for banks, canals, roads; Whigs appealed to the common people; Alabama legislators appealed to slaveowners who had money and power in the state; % of state revenue came from taxes on slaves and land; Alabama viewed as a state that taxed democratically; more often, yeomen bore the burden of taxation in southern states. The Paradox of Southern Prosperity – two extremes: extreme hardship, poverty for African Americans vs. wealth and prosperity for white planters; South had a higher per capita income than France and Germany; compared to North, a lower standard of living; focus on land and agriculture, not on new technology of the 19th century: factories, machine tools, steel plows, crushed gravel roads, water and steam-powered factories were all part of life in the industrial North; urban growth in the North was limited in the South to New Orleans, St. Louis, and Baltimore; few immigrants to the South because of lack of opportunity; by % of southerners still worked in agriculture.

How would you explain the large and expanding domestic trade in slaves between 1800 and 1860? What combination of factors produced this result?

How would you explain the large and expanding domestic trade in slaves between 1800 and 1860? What combination of factors produced this result? The domestic slave trade expanded as a result of the exhaustion of the soil of tobacco regions in the Chesapeake, which created a pool of surplus slaves. The opening of new lands taken from Indians in the Southeast and Southwest provided new opportunities for white economic development and new demands for black slave labor. The federal government expanded slavery and slave trade by securing Louisiana from the French in 1803, removing Indians, and annexing Texas and other lands taken from Mexico during 1840s. The end of international slave trade in 1809 closed off a source of supply of slaves. The African American population was increasing naturally, making more slaves available for internal sale.

By 1860, what different groups made up the South’s increasingly complex society? How did these groups interact in the political arena?

By 1860, what different groups made up the South’s increasingly complex society? How did these groups interact in the political arena? Groups included elite planters, middle-class planters, and yeomen, as well as propertyless whites. In some states, slaveholding and nonslaveholding whites competed in the political arena over taxation of land, slaves, and luxury goods. In other states, the white classes cooperated in economic areas to create a race-based society that empowered all whites to become land and slave owners. Many poor and nonslaveholding whites fled slave-based regions to create free labor counties in the hill regions of the Appalachian mountains.

II. The African American World
Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Black Protestantism African-born slaves continued to worship gods and spirits ministers such as Presbyterian Charles C. Jones believed that whites should Christianize slaves some slaves were Christianized in the Chesapeake and then sold to the Deep South. The African American World Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Black Protestantism – African-born slaves continued to worship gods and spirits; ministers such as Presbyterian Charles C. Jones believed that whites should Christianize slaves; some slaves were Christianized in the Chesapeake and then sold to the Deep South. Influences – adapted Protestantism to their needs; slaves disliked and avoided passages in the Bible that told them to obey authority without question; some believed they would be liberated as the Jews had been in the Old Testament; adapted music to their African roots and spiritual needs; worship became “distinctive and joyous.”

Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Influences (4.1.2.D) adapted Protestantism to their needs slaves disliked and avoided passages in the Bible that told them to obey authority without question -Hebrews 13:17 “Obey your leaders and submit to them, for they are keeping watch over your souls, as those who will have to give an account. Let them do this with joy and not with groaning, for that would be of no advantage to you.” -Romans 13:2 “Therefore whoever resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will incur judgment.” -1 Timothy 6:1-21 “Let all who are under a yoke as slaves regard their own masters as worthy of all honor, so that the name of God and the teaching may not be reviled. Those who have believing masters must not be disrespectful on the ground that they are brothers; rather they must serve all the better since those who benefit by their good service are believers and beloved.“ The African American World Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Black Protestantism – African-born slaves continued to worship gods and spirits; ministers such as Presbyterian Charles C. Jones believed that whites should Christianize slaves; some slaves were Christianized in the Chesapeake and then sold to the Deep South. Influences – adapted Protestantism to their needs; slaves disliked and avoided passages in the Bible that told them to obey authority without question; some believed they would be liberated as the Jews had been in the Old Testament; adapted music to their African roots and spiritual needs; worship became “distinctive and joyous.”

Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Influences (4.1.2.D) some believed they would be liberated as the Jews had been in the Old Testament adapted music to their African roots and spiritual needs worship became “distinctive and joyous.” The African American World Evangelical Black Protestantism (West African culture remained strong among slaves because whites did not assimilate them into white culture.) Black Protestantism – African-born slaves continued to worship gods and spirits; ministers such as Presbyterian Charles C. Jones believed that whites should Christianize slaves; some slaves were Christianized in the Chesapeake and then sold to the Deep South. Influences – adapted Protestantism to their needs; slaves disliked and avoided passages in the Bible that told them to obey authority without question; some believed they would be liberated as the Jews had been in the Old Testament; adapted music to their African roots and spiritual needs; worship became “distinctive and joyous.” Black worship became “distinctive and joyous.” Moses parts the Red Sea

1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide?
Ask students to compare this image and the following image in the presentation. 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide? (Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability.) 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? (Answer: both black and white people attending the service.)

1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide?
Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability Ask students to compare this image and the following image in the presentation. 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide? (Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability.) 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? (Answer: both black and white people attending the service.)

2. Examine the people present in the church
2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? Ask students to compare this image and the following image in the presentation. 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide? (Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability.) 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? (Answer: both black and white people attending the service.)

Answer: both black and white people attending the service.
2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? Answer: both black and white people attending the service. Ask students to compare this image and the following image in the presentation. 1. Taken together, what insights into the lives of slaves do these images provide? (Answer: work and social life depicted; the family of cotton pickers look tired, wearing tattered, dirty clothing reflective of the manual labor. Church: provided a social outlet for slaves and their families, a sense of community; clean clothing, faces washed, provided a sense of respectability.) 2. Examine the people present in the church. What do you notice about the men, women and children attending service? (Answer: both black and white people attending the service.)

Forging Families and Creating Culture (4.1.2.D) 1. African Influences by 1820 percentage of slaves born in Africa was decreasing (20% in South Carolina) regional differences were evident Mississippi Valley population had large number of slaves who descended from the Congo (West-Central Africa) shunned marriages between cousins (African incest taboos). 2. Kinship and Marriage cousin marriages were common among whites in the South slave marriages not recognized by law, although marriages did often take place in front of ministers slaves who came from Africa often gave their children African names American-born slaves chose English names. The African American World Forging Families and Creating Culture African Influences – by 1820 percentage of slaves born in Africa was decreasing (20% in South Carolina); regional differences were evident; Mississippi Valley population had large number of slaves who descended from the Congo (West-Central Africa); shunned marriages between cousins (African incest taboos). Kinship and Marriage – cousin marriages were common among whites in the South; slave marriages not recognized by law, although marriages did often take place in front of ministers; slaves who came from Africa often gave their children African names; American-born slaves chose English names. 58

Antebellum Slave Quarters
During the colonial period, owners often housed their slaves by gender in communal barracks. In the nineteenth century, slaves usually lived in family units in separate cabins. The slave huts on this South Carolina plantation were sturdily built but had few windows. Inside, they were sparsely furnished.

Negotiating Rights 1. Establishing Order families and communities provided order among slaves collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina) slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized difficult to maintain order unless a slave owner was comfortable using violence, many were not. 2. Passive Resistance slowed the pace of work feigned illness breaking tools insistence that they be sold in families burning master’s home or barn poisoning food destroying crops any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832) escape was difficult for those in the Deep South escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population 1. Northern Free Blacks 2. Standing for Freedom in the South The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

“An Account of the Late Intended Insurrection, Charleston, South Carolina”
In 1820, Charleston had a free black population of 1,500 and an array of African American institutions, including the Brown Fellowship Society (for those of mixed racial ancestry) and an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church. In 1822, Charleston authorities accused a free black, Denmark Vesey, of organizing a revolt to free the city’s slaves. Although historians long accepted the validity of that charge, recent scholarship suggests that Vesey’s only offense was antagonizing some whites by claiming his rights as a free man and that the alleged insurrection was a figment of the imagination of fearful slave owners. Regardless, South Carolina officials hanged Vesey and thirty-four alleged co-conspirators and tore down the AME church where they were said to have plotted the uprising.

Negotiating Rights 2. Passive Resistance slowed the pace of work feigned illness breaking tools insistence that they be sold in families burning master’s home or barn poisoning food destroying crops any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832) escape was difficult for those in the Deep South escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population 1. Northern Free Blacks 2. Standing for Freedom in the South The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

The Free Black Population 1. Northern Free Blacks about half of free blacks lived in the North discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior few northern states gave black men suffrage only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court "We are slaves in the midst of freedom, waiting patiently and unconcernedly, indifferently, and stupidly, for masters to come and lay claim to us, trusting to their generosity, whether or not they will own us and carry us into endless bondage.“ -Martin Delany in reference to the Fugitive Slave Law (Because slave owners needed only an affidavit to accuse someone of being a runaway slave, many free blacks were conscripted into slavery by the law, which outraged Delany and contributed to his support for emigration from The United States to Central or South America, later to Africa.) created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. 2. Standing for Freedom in the South The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

The Free Black Population 2. Standing for Freedom in the South approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860 mostly in coastal cities of Upper South danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18) free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom. The African American World Negotiating Rights Establishing Order – families and communities provided order among slaves; collective unity aided slaves in achieving additional rights (“task” work in South Carolina); slaveholders feared rebellion among slaves that organized; difficult to maintain order unless a slaveowner was comfortable using violence, many were not. Passive Resistance – slowed the pace of work; feigned illness; breaking tools; insistence that they be sold in families; burning master’s home or barn; poisoning food; destroying crops; any of these tactics could be met with violence by masters, including rape of slaves; few slaves rebelled violently (Gabriel and Martin Prosser in 1800; Nat Turner in 1832); escape was difficult for those in the Deep South; escape from any plantation meant leaving family members. The Free Black Population Northern Free Blacks – about half of free blacks lived in the North; discrimination against blacks kept them in low-paying jobs and considered socially inferior; few northern states gave black men suffrage; only Massachusetts allowed blacks to testify against whites in court; “slaves in the midst of freedom”; created strong institutions including businesses, schools, mutual-benefit societies, Free African Societies, African Methodist Episcopal Church. Standing for Freedom in the South – approx. 225,000 free blacks in slave states in 1860; mostly in coastal cities of Upper South; danger of being forced into slavery, denied jury trials, kidnapped and sold; very few free blacks owned slaves (David Barland in Mississippi owned 18); free black men were symbols to slaves of potential for freedom.

Why did certain African cultural practices (the ring shout and incest taboos, for example) persist in the United States while others (ritual scarring, for example) disappeared?

Why did certain African cultural practices (the ring shout and incest taboos, for example) persist in the United States while others (ritual scarring, for example) disappeared? Some cultural traits from Africa were useful, such as incest taboos to prevent inbreeding on large-scale plantations, and easily replicated, such as the ring shout, in the new circumstances of slavery in America. The passage of time further eroded some less important aspects of the culture, such as ritual scarring, but preserved the values of African marriage. Masters also shaped cultural development by allowing for certain behaviors like the practice of religion, and prohibiting others, such as mutilation of slaves by fellow slaves.

What were some of the successes of African Americans in the period 1800–1860? In what endeavors did they not succeed?

What were some of the successes of African Americans in the period 1800–1860? In what endeavors did they not succeed? Slaves achieved some success in attempting to mitigate the worst abuses of slavery. African Americans were often sold away from their families, but 75 percent of slave marriages remained unbroken and many slave children lived with one or both of their parents. Slaves had difficulty fomenting slave insurrections, but were more successful at escaping and passive resistance. African American slaves also maintained certain African customs within religion and social life that provided space for blacks to feel like human beings. Some slaves were paid for their work, while others were able to keep garden plots to supplement their diet and pay.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS
How did plantation crops and the system of slavery change between 1800 and 1860? Why did these changes occur?

How did plantation crops and the system of slavery change between 1800 and 1860? Why did these changes occur? Cotton became the principal plantation crop of the South after Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin. It dominated the southern economy even after slavery ended in 1865, but made the South a colony dependent on the fortunes of the northern United States and Europe, which imported cotton from monocrop South. The slavery system spread to the Deep South over time after 1812, through a domestic slave trade that brought over one million African Americans to the New South by The slavery regime increased in harshness and severity as a result of violence, slave resistance, and justification by white planters. Economic diversification and industrial development lagged far behind the North because of planters’ investment in land, cotton, and slaves for short-term profits.

Why in 1860 did white southerners remain committed to the institution of slavery and its expansion? Based on what you’ve learned so far in Part 3, compare and contrast society in the American South with that of the North. Is it fair to say that America was, in fact, two distinct societies by 1860?

Why in 1860 did white southerners remain committed to the institution of slavery and its expansion? Based on what you’ve learned so far in Part 3, compare and contrast society in the American South with that of the North. Is it fair to say that America was, in fact, two distinct societies by 1860? White southerners believed that slavery was a “positive good” for American society, politics, and the economy. Planters grew rich from slavery and the cotton economy it fueled, dominated southern politics with their wealth and elite social status, and benefited, like all whites, from the racial solidarity and advantages that slavery provided. White southerners also justified slavery according to religious principles, such as citing the Hebrew ownership of slaves. White southerners believed that blacks received tutelage under slavery, and that slavery provided a civilized life for whites as well. It is fair to say that by 1860 North and South were two distinct societies based on the impact of slavery on the society, politics, and economy of the two regions. Although African Americans were present and considered inferior in law and custom in both regions, southern society contained 90 percent of the black population, creating a race-based society different from the free labor North. A free labor North based on religious diversity, European immigration, and the Industrial Revolution contrasted with an antidemocratic slave-labor South based on the racial subjection of half the population, the lack of industrial and transportation development, and the desire to politically extend slavery to new states to benefit the nation.

America’s History Seventh Edition

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