1. By John Tummino

3.  Obstacles: states can prevent minority group members from voting, the two-tier court system (state courts hostile, regional bias), state control over voter registration and elections, and state control over legislation (Jim Crow)  Opportunities: appeal to the federal government (judicial review), civil liberties (incorporation doctrine), geographic concentration allows for greater influence

4.  Obstacles: taking minority votes for granted, closed membership (white primaries), less opportunities for minority viewpoints to be represented, lack of candidates on the ballot, third party bias (anti-third-party), and lack of party discipline in enforcing adherence to minority- favoring policies  Opportunities: become a major part of a party's makeup, proportional representation of delegates to the Democratic Party convention (divides the delegates between two candidates who are close to one another in the voting), recruitment of minorities as party workers, ideological slant of primary voters, open membership

5.  Obstacles: winner-take-all, at-large (the whole) vs. single-member (predetermined constituency; two party politics) districts, racial gerrymandering, runoff elections (like brackets)  Opportunities: voting blocs (margin of difference), greater number of seats, voting system