1. Memory: Information Processing

2. Information Processing Model 1. Encoding - getting information into the memory system 2. Storage - retaining the information over time 3. Retrieval - getting information out of memory storage

3. Encoding

4. Two Types of Encoding  Automatic Processing  Effortful Processing

5. Automatic Processing  unconscious encoding info; without effort  Place information (example: remembering where a piece of info is in your textbook, but not remembering what the info is)

6. Effortful Processing  requires attention & a conscious, deliberate effort  example: studying for a test

7. Processing Trends & Strategies How can you use effortful processing to encode school-related information?

8. Rehearsal  repeating information to encode it  one of the most important processing strategies

9. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)  did memory studies w/ three- letter nonsense syllables (gnh, auk, loi)  conclusion: the more you rehearse, the more you retain  developed the forgetting curve (a.k.a. “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”)

10. Rehearsal and Retention (From Baddeley, 1982)

11.  Poodle  Tree  Dance  House  Airport  Sugar  Child  Ground  Watch  Squirrel  Truck  Building  Hospital  Pencil  Terrace  Lamp

12. Serial Position Effect  primacy effect – ability to recall info near the beginning of a list  recency effect – the ability to recall info near the end of a list

13. Primacy/Recency Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

14. Spacing Effect  distributed practice - spread rehearsal out in several sessions separated by a period of time  massed practice - putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)  distributed practice helps you retain info better than massed practice

15. Mnemonic Device  memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts  Example: Peg-word System

16. Peg-Word System  the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized  goal: visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

17. Peg Word System

18. Storage

19. Three Storage Systems  three distinct storage systems : sensory memory working memory long-term memory

20. Sensory Memory  brief, initial coding of sensory info in the memory system iconic store – visual info (less than ½ second) echoic store – sound info (3 – 4 seconds)  info held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

21. Working Memory  holds info briefly before it is stored or forgotten (conscious, activated)  holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info at one time (example: phone numbers)  can retain info as long as it is rehearsed

22. Long-Term Memory  relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system  holds memories w/out conscious effort

23. Memory and the Brain: How do we get information into long-term memory?

24. How are memories constructed?  memory research says we build memories from bits & pieces of info.  when pieces are missing, we invent new ones to fill the spaces

25. How are memories stored?  each memory activates a specific pattern of firing in brain cells (neurons)  long-term potentiation: as the neurons for a particular memory fire over & over, the synapses become more efficient (release neurotransmitter serotonin)

26. The Brain Documentary: Memory

27. Retrieval

28.  two forms of retrieval recall - retrieve information learned earlier  examples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short answer test questions recognition - identify items learned earlier  examples: multiple choice & matching test questions

29. How do we get to memories we need to retrieve?  memories are primed (triggered) by retrieval cues  the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to learn more about it

31. End Class Notes – Fall 2015

32. Overlearning  continuing to rehearse after the info has been learned  rehearsing past the point of mastery  helps ensure info will be available even under stress  examples: playing musical pieces, sports

33. Semantic Encoding  making the material meaningful  encoding info that is meaningful enhances recall  make info meaningful by making it relevant to your life How do you make material meaningful? Self-Reference Effect

34. Encoding Research (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

35. Mnemonic: Method of Loci  person associates items to be remembered with familiar places

36. Storage: Explicit & Implicit Memories

37. Explicit Memory  memory of facts & experiences examples:  At what temperature does water freeze?  What is your mother’s middle name?  What did you eat for dinner last night?  must consciously retrieve and declare  processed through the hippocampus

38. Implicit Memory  memory of skills & procedures examples:  how to walk  how to read  how to button your shirt  retrieved without conscious recollection  processed through the cerebellum

39. Memory and the Hippocampus  damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new explicit memories  the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories remains

40. Memory and the Hippocampus

41. Think about this…  What would happen if a man who experienced damage to his hippocampus went to play golf on the same course every day? Answer: He would have no explicit memory of the course – it would seem like a brand new place every time. But his scores would gradually improve over time, because his implicit memories would allow him to get better with practice.

42. Context Effect  enhanced ability to retrieve info when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info

43. State Dependent Memory  retrieval is best when the person is in the same physical & emotional state as when they encoded the info.  physical examples: tired, under the influence of caffeine  mood examples: happy, depressed