1. REAL WORLD RESEARCH THIRD EDITION Chapter 11: Interviews and Focus Groups 1©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

2. Types of Interview Fully structured Semi-structured Unstructured 2©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

3. Advantages of semi-structured interviews Generally flexible and adaptable Can modify sequence of questions Can follow up interesting responses Can pick up non-verbal cues (applies to all face-to-face interviews) Potential of providing rich and highly illuminating material 3©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

4. Disadvantages of semi-structured interviews Need for skill and experience to make full use of the flexibility Lack of standardization raises questions about reliability Biases difficult to rule out Time-consuming 4©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

5. General advice for interviewers Listen more than you speak Put questions in a straightforward, clear and non-threatening way Eliminate cues which lead interviewees to respond in a particular way Enjoy it (or at least look as though you do) Take a full record of the interview 5©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

6. Questions to avoid in interviews Long questions Double-barrelled (or multiple-barrelled) questions Questions involving jargon Leading questions Biased questions 6©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

7. Pre-prepared content for structured and semi-structured interviews A set of items (usually questions), often with alternative subsequent items depending on the responses obtained Suggestions for probes and prompts A proposed sequence for the questions which, in a semi- structured interview, may be subject to change during the course of the interview 7©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

8. Types of items/questions closed (or ‘fixed-alternative’) open scale items 8©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

9. Advantages of open-ended questions in interviews They: are flexible allow you to go into more depth or clear up any misunderstandings enable testing of the limits of a respondent’s knowledge encourage cooperation and rapport allow you to make a truer assessment of what the respondent really believes, and can produce unexpected or unanticipated answers 9©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

10. Disadvantages of open-ended questions in interviews possible loss of control by the interviewer much more difficult to analyse than closed ones 10©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

11. Typical sequence of interview questions 1 Introduction. 2 ‘Warm-up’ 3 Main body of interview 4 ‘Cool-off’. 5Closure 11©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

12. Interview schedule for a semi- structured interview Introductory comments (probably a verbatim script) List of topic headings and possibly key questions to ask under these headings Set of associated prompts, and Closing comments 12©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

13. Introducing yourself: self-instructions 1 Explain purpose and nature of the study to the respondent 2 Give assurance that respondent will remain anonymous in any written reports growing out of the study, and that their responses will be treated in strictest confidence 3 Indicate that they may find some of the questions farfetched, silly or difficult to answer continued … 13©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

14. Introducing yourself: self-instructions - continued 4Explain that the respondent is perfectly free to interrupt, ask clarification of the interviewer, criticize a line of questioning, etc. 5 Tell respondent something about yourself 6 Ask permission to tape record the interview explaining why you wish to do this (based on Lofland et al., 2006, p. 104 – original source Davis, 1960) 14©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

15. Advantages of telephone interviewing 1Much cheaper and quicker, particularly if face-to-face interviewing would call for substantial travel 2Use of computer-assisted telephone interviewing simplifies the task 3Supervision of interviewers’ performance is easier, particularly if the interviews are recorded 4Possible reduction of bias due to interviewer characteristics on responses 15©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

16. Disadvantages of telephone interviewing 1Potential for bias from problems in making phone contact to all members of the population of interest 2They need to be relatively short; face-to-face interviews can be longer 3The lack of visual cues can be a handicap 4It is not possible to gather contextual information 16©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

17. Advantages of e-mail interviews 1Cost 2Range of participants 3Time for reflection 4Concurrent interviewing is possible 5Rapport 6Saying things that would not be said face to face 7Overcoming interviewer effects (based on Hunt and McHale, 2007, pp. 1416–18) 17©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

18. Disadvantages of e-mail interviews 1Problems with the sample 2The interview can take too long 3Ethical issues 4Missing non-verbal cues 5Impersonality (based on Hunt and McHale, 2007, pp. 1416–18) 18©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

19. Advantages of focus groups 1 A highly efficient technique for qualitative data collection 2 Natural quality controls on data collection operate 3 Group dynamics help in focusing on the most important topics and it is fairly easy to assess the extent to which there is a consistent and shared view 4 Participants tend to enjoy the experience 5 The method is relatively inexpensive and flexible and can be set up quickly 6Participants are empowered and able to make comments in their own words, while being stimulated by thoughts and comments of others in the group continued … 19©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

20. Advantages of focus groups - continued 7 Contributions can be encouraged from people who are either reluctant to be interviewed on their own, feel they have nothing to say or who may not usually participate in surveys 8 People who cannot read or write or who have other specific difficulties are not discriminated against 9Facilitation can help in the discussion of taboo subjects since less inhibited members may break the ice or provide mutual support (adapted from Robinson, 1999, pp 909–10) 20©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

21. Disadvantages of focus groups 1 The number of questions covered is limited - typically fewer than 10 major questions can be asked in an hour 2 Facilitating the group process requires considerable expertise. 3 The interview process needs to be well managed 4 Conflicts may arise between personalities - power struggles may detract from the interview and status may conflict within the procedure continued … 21©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

22. Disadvantages of focus groups - continued 5 Confidentiality can be a problem between participants in a group situation 6 The results are difficult to generalize 7 The live and immediate nature of the interaction may lead a researcher or decision-maker to place greater faith in the findings than is actually warranted (adapted from Robinson, 1999, pp 909–10 ) 22©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

23. Homogeneous groups Have a common background, position or experience which: facilitates communication promotes an exchange of ideas and experiences gives a sense of safety in expressing conflicts or concerns; and may result in ‘groupthink’ (unquestioning similarity of position or views) (derived from Brown, 1999, p. 115) 23©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

24. Heterogeneous groups Differ in background, position or experience which: can stimulate and enrich the discussion may inspire other group members to look at the topic in a different light may risk power imbalances can lead to lack of respect for opinions expressed by some members can lead to a dominant participant destroying the group process (derived from Brown, 1999, p. 115) 24©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

25. Advantages of involving a colleague in focus group research It provides coverage of both the substantive area of interest and focus group experience (often not possible to combine these in a single person). A second person can make notes on who is speaking The second person can note non-verbal interactions. The second person can give feedback on the moderator’s performance 25©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

26. Methodological issues arising from focus groups 1The skills and attributes of the moderator and the manner of data recording affect the quality of the data collected 2 They explore collective phenomena, not individual ones 3Focus group data may be a poor indicator of a consensus in attitudes, though they may reveal a divergence of opinion and the extent to which certain issues recur across groups continued … 26©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

27. Methodological issues arising from focus groups 4 They can reveal the nature and range of participants' views but less so, their strength 5 Generalization from focus group data is problematic 6Focus groups tap a different realm of social reality from that revealed by one-to-one interviews or questionnaire studies (derived from Sim, 1998, p. 351 ) 27©2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.