1. Corporate Finance A1 Vysoká škola finanční a správní Summer Semester 2012 Jaromír R. Stemberg jaromir@mail.vsfs.cz

2. Course Layout Twelve two-hour lessons The course is to introduce general financial management problems, realtions, terminology, and solutions Ends with a Credit (zápočet)

3. Literature Block, Stanley: Foundations of Financial Management McGraw-Hill, 2009 ISBN 978-0-07-128525-4

4. Grading End of Summer semester: Pass / Fail 30%: Three assignments (10% each) 18%: Seminars attendance (3% each) 52%: Written test Minimum to pass: 70% Students in full time study program should attend 75% of seminars as a minimum

5. History of Money and Accounting

6. Barter Trade Exchange of personal possessions of value for other goods From 9,000-6,000 B.C., livestock was often used as a unit of exchange; as agriculture developed, people used crops for barter This kind of exchange started at the beginning of humankind and is still used today

7. Barter Trade Problems Finding the other party: - interest - time Establishing equal value of exchanged goods Durability of the exchanged goods, potentiality to store it Need for a common, durable, storable, non-decaying, generally accepted unit of exchange

8. Cowry Shells The first money (or medium of exchange) Began to be used at about 1200 B.C. in China Accepted in some African regions till 1950s

9. Metal Coins China, 1000 BC: Bronze and copper cowry imitations were considered the earliest forms of metal coins. They contained holes so they could be put together like a chain. Lydia (Turkey), 500 BC: The first coins developed out of lumps of silver and were stamped with emperors to mark their authenticity. The techniques were quickly copied by the Greeks, Persians, and the Roman Empire. Unlike Chinese coins, these were made from precious metals such as silver and gold, which had more inherent value.

10. Banknotes China, 100 BC: Leather money – pieces of painted white deerskin. China, 800 AD: The first paper banknotes appeared. China, 1450 AD: Printing money led to a soaring inflation so the use of paper money in China disappeared (this was still years to come before paper currency would be used in Europe).

11. Development of Accounting Babylon, 18 th century B.C. - first organized records kept to account for assets and loans - other ancient civilizations (Roman Empire, Greek Cities, Egypt) followed Europe, 1 st millennium A.D. fall of the Roman Empire caused serious setback in education Italy, 13 th century A.D. - growing trade in the Mediterranean and accumulation of wealth in Italy gave grounds to the development of banking - double-entry bookkeeping was invented by Luca Pacioli

12. Modern Times Accounting 17 th century France: - obligation to present bi-yearly balances of financial situation Italy: - complete theory of accounting Holland: - first corporation established, need for equity accounting 19 th century - massive increase of accounting operations - perfection of accounting principles - rules for asset evaluation

13. History of Accounting Standards 1938: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants began to develop accounting standards (request of the Securities and Exchange Commission) 1959: Accounting Principles Board established, introduction of GAAP 1973: the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) formed to develop International Accounting Standards (IAS) 2001: end of IAS (41 issued so far, still valid); new standards are from now on called International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) that quickly became accepted world wide

14. Principles of Accounting

15. Record Keeping Information – a basic element needed for - past references and reporting - present registration and evidence - future planning and management decision making Registered entries keep track of: - amount how much - count how many - time when - place where - person who

16. Double-Entry Accounting Accounts - recognition of individual transactions - debit and credit to be recorded at the same time General Ledger (hlavní kniha) - transactions recorded in accounts, total of both sides must be equal - can be extended by subsidiary ledgers Journal (účetní deník) - transactions recorded in order as they occurred - both sides of the record must be equal

17. Purpose of Record Keeping Financial accounting - provides information for owners, investors and other stake holders - serves as a base for income tax due calculation - subject to regulations by accounting standards - must be true and honest Managerial accounting - serves the managers as base for strategy planning and decision making - provides specified pieces of information - outcomes don’t have to be understood by the general public

18. Financial Reports Analysis

19. Balance Sheet Assets Liabilities Current AssetsCurrent Liabilities Cash and EquivalentsShort-Term Accounts Payable Short-Term ReceivablesCurrent Tax Payable InventoryShort-Term Loans and Borrowings Accruals and Other S/T AssetsAccruals and Other S/T Liabilities Long-Term AssetsLong-Term Liabilities Intangible Fixed AssetsLong-Term Payables Tangible Fixed AssetsProvisions Long-Term Receivables Owners’ Equity Share Capital Share Premium and Capital Funds Retained Earnings Y-T-D Profit (Loss)

21. Cash Flow Statement

22. Statement of Changes in Equity

23. Profitability Ratios Profit margin Return on assets (investments) Return on equity

24. Profit Margin Net income / Sales = 200 / 4 000 = 5%

25. Return on Assets Net income / Total assets = 200 / 1 600 = 12,5%

26. Return on Equity Net income / Stockholders‘ equity = 200 / 1 000 = 20%

27. Asset Utilization Ratios Receivable turnover Average collection period Inventory turnover Fixed asset turnover Total asset turnover

28. Receivable Turnover Sales / Accounts receivable = 4 000 / 350 = 11,4 times

29. Average Collection Period Accounts receivable / (Sales / 365) = 350 / 11 = 32 days

30. Fixed Assets Turnover Sales / Fixed Assets = 4 000 / 800 = 5 times

31. Total Assets Turnover Sales / Total assets = 4 000 / 1 600 = 2,5 times

32. Inventury Turnover Sales / Fixed Assets = 4 000 / 800 = 5 times

33. Liquidity Ratios Current ratio Quick ratio

34. Current Ratio Current assets / Current liabilities = 800 / 300 = 2,67

35. Quick Ratio (Current assets - Inventory) / Current liabilities = 430 / 300 = 1,43

36. Debt utilization Ratios Debt to total assets Times interest earned

37. Debt to Total Assets Total debt / Total assets = 600 / 1 600 = 37,5%

38. Times Interest Earned EBIT / Interest = 550 / 50 = 11 times

39. Du Pont Analysis

40. Trend Analysis

41. Forecast and Budget

42. Budgetting Systematic setting of future goals Bottom-up or top-down Identification of external influence and risks (such as customers, competition, macroeconomics) Identification of external influence and risks (such as capacity of production and resources, human factor) Setting of expected growth (reduction), pipeline, percent-of-sales, investment planning

43. Financial Forecasting Pro forma income statement Revenue (pipeline, funnel, percentage) Expenses (variable, fixed) Pro forma balance sheet A/R, A/P, inventory Fixed assets, liabilities, equity Pro forma cash flow statement

44. Operational and Financial Leverage

45. Fixed and variable expenses $ No. of units produced total expenses fixed expenses

46. Fixed and variable expenses $ No. of units produced total expenses fixed expenses

47. Fixed and variable expenses 0 $ total expenses fixned expenses No. of units produced

48. Fixed and variable expenses No. of units produced $ fixned expenses total expenses

49. $ Break-Even Point No. of units produced revenue total expenses fixed expenses

50. Break-Even Point profit revenue total expenses fixed expenses $ No. of units produced

51. $ Break-Even Point No. of units produced revenue total expenses fixed expenses

52. Operational leverage Uses fixed/variable cost Can increase profits but increases risk _ Fixed costs _ Price – Variable cost per unit

53. Operational leverage A company produces units (selling price 2.00 per unit) and needs to purchase a new production machine. There are two options: 1)an expensive machine: fixed cost 60 000.00, variable cost 0.80 per unit 2)a cheap machine: fixed cost 12 000.00, variable cost 1.60 per unit _ Fixed costs _ Price – Variable cost per unit

54. Operational leverage _ Fixed costs _ Price – Variable cost per unit Fixed cost 60.000Fixed cost 12.000 Variable cost 0,80 / unitVariable cost 1,60 / unit Unit price 2,00Unit price 2,00 60.000/(2,00-0,80) = 50.00012.000/(2,00-1,60)= 30.000 break-even point isbreak-even point is 50.000 units30.000 units

55. Financial Leverage 2 firms: exactly the same Same sector Same opportunities Same Management… The only difference: the debt L (leveraged firm) has 50% of debt U (unleveraged firm) has no debt

56. Financial Leverage Firm UFirm L Shares (Capital) Financial debt Total 100 000 0 100 000 50 000 100 000 Number of shares (Price of a share 100) 1 000 500 EBIT Financial interests (interest rate 5%) Net income before tax EPS before tax 10 000 0 10 000 10 (10 000/1 000) 10 000 2 500 7 500 15 (7 500/500) Net income after tax (Tax rate 33%) EPS after tax 6 700 6,70 5 000 10,00

57. Financial Leverage The shareholder of L has a return of 15 (before tax) The shareholder of U has a return of 10 (before tax) What do you prefer?

58. Financial Leverage Firm UFirm L Shares Financial debt Total 100 000 0 100 000 50 000 100 000 Number of shares (Price of a share 100) 1 000 500 EBIT Financial interests (interest rate 5%) Net income before tax EPS before tax 0 2 500 -2 500 -5 Net income after tax EPS after tax 0 -2 500 -5

59. Financial Leverage The shareholder of L has a return of -5 (before tax) The shareholder of U has a return of 0 (before tax) What do you prefer?

60. Financial Leverage For leverage to be profitable, the rate of return on the investment must be higher than the cost of the borrowed money Conclusion Leverage can create value or destroy it To create value, the IRR must be higher than the cost of loan; if not, leverage destroys value.

61. Working Capital

62. Material Production Finished goods Accounts receivable 10 days20 days10 days30 days Accounts payable 30 days 40 dní Payment to suppliers Payment from customers Need for Working Capital need to finance by working capital

63. Working Capital Flow Cycle Inventory of finished products Accounts receivable Raw material inventory WORKING CAPITAL Procurement Production Warehousing Logistics Sales Collection

64. Balance Sheet Assets Liabilities Current AssetsCurrent Liabilities Cash and EquivalentsShort-Term Accounts Payable Short-Term ReceivablesCurrent Tax Payable InventoryShort-Term Loans and Borrowings Accruals and Other S/T AssetsAccruals and Other S/T Liabilities Long-Term AssetsLong-Term Liabilities Intangible Fixed AssetsLong-Term Payables Tangible Fixed AssetsProvisions Long-Term Receivables Owners’ Equity Share Capital Share Premium and Capital Funds Retained Earnings Y-T-D Profit (Loss)

65. Balance Sheet Assets Liabilities Current AssetsCurrent Liabilities Cash and EquivalentsShort-Term Accounts Payable Short-Term Receivables Short-Term ReceivablesCurrent Tax Payable Inventory InventoryShort-Term Loans and Borrowings Accruals and Other S/T AssetsAccruals and Other S/T Liabilities Long-Term AssetsLong-Term Liabilities Intangible Fixed AssetsLong-Term Payables Tangible Fixed AssetsProvisions Long-Term Receivables Owners’ Equity Share Capital Share Premium and Capital Funds Retained Earnings Y-T-D Profit (Loss)

66. Accounts Receivable Turnover Accounts receivable / avg daily sales (sales / 365) Example: annual sales = 25 000 000 CZK accounts receivable = 1 800 000 CZK Calculation: average daily sales: 25 000 000 / 365 = 68 493 days of sales outstanding: 1 800 000 / 68 493 = 26 Days of sales outstanding (account receivable turnover) is 26 days