1. Intra-specific co-operative behaviour Group formation Courtship and pair-bond formation Parental care

2. Group Formation When members of a group come together to undertake tasks e.g Hunting

3. Advantages to forming groups Team work leads to increased success rate. Less predation as can have members of the group on “look out” Older members protect young or weak individuals Large numbers can cause confusion for predators Breeding sites are located within a boundary that is protected by members of a group

4. Disadvantages Competition is increased Disease can spread faster Parasites (e.g. fleas) spread faster Increases conflict between members

5. Courtship/Pair bonding Requires co-operation, suppression of aggressive behaviours and communication. Usually females make the choice who they mate with, but both partners need to make sure; – They are the same species – Both fertile – Both fully prepared to mate.

6. Courtship Males usually will compete for the attention of females by – Competing with other males by fighting or ritualised combat – Compete indirectly by attracting females by displays and adornments E.g. antlers in deer, brightly coloured feathers in peacocks, singing and dancing of many bird species, producing pheromones.

8. Pair-bond Relationship A stable relationship between animals of the opposite sex that ensures co-operative behaviour on mating and rearing of the young

9. Parental Care Survival depends on successfully breeding adequate numbers of offspring. Can be achieved by to possible strategies – R-strategy – produce large numbers of unprepared offspring with a low chance of survival – K-strategy – produce few, well prepared offspring which have a high chance of survival

10. R-Strategy – Shell fish, bacteria,insects

11. K – strategy – Kakapo, whales, humans

12. Parental Care Degree of parental care depends on the species – E.g. eggs buried and then abandoned (many fish species), nest constructed and defended, offspring themselves defended – Often those species that have a high degree of parental care will teach their offspring how to find food, where to find water, how to make a home etc.

13. Reproductive Strategies Monogamy – each mating with only one member of the opposite sex (often for life) Polygyny – males mate with many females thus fathering many offspring Polygamy – dominant males mates with a harem of females Polyandry – females mate with more than one male Polygynadry (promiscuity) – both male and female mate with more than one member of the opposite sex