2. Chapter 9 Cellular Reproduction
Section 1: Cellular Growth
Section 2: Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Section 3: Cell Cycle Regulation

3. 9.1 Cellular Growth Objectives:
Explain why cells are relatively small.
Summarize the primary stages of the cell cycle.
Describe the stages of interphase.

4. 9.1 Cellular Growth
Main Idea – Cells grow until they reach their size limit, then they either stop growing or divide.

5. Ratio of Surface Area to Volume
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
Ratio of Surface Area to Volume

6. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
As the cell grows, its volume increases much more rapidly than the surface area.
The cell might have difficulty supplying nutrients and expelling enough waste products.

7. Transport of Substances
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
Transport of Substances
Substances move by diffusion or by motor proteins.
Diffusion over large distances is slow and inefficient.
Small cells maintain more efficient transport systems.

8. Cellular Communications
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
Cellular Communications
The need for signaling proteins to move throughout the cell also limits cell size.
Cell size affects the ability of the cell to communicate instructions for cellular functions.

9. Cell Size Limitations ratio of surface area to volume
Cells are smaller than a period (100um).
Surface area refers to the plasma membrane ;
L x W x number of sides (6)
Volume refers to the contents of the cell;
L x W x H
Volume increases faster than surface area
Higher ratio of surface area to volume allows cell to maximize diffusion and transport; more efficient

10. Transport of substances – smaller cells have more efficient transport
Cellular communications – smaller size is more efficient for protein synthesis

12. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
Interphase is the stage during which the cell grows, carries out cellular functions, and replicates organelles.
Mitosis is the stage of the cell cycle during which the cell’s nucleus and nuclear material (DNA) divide.
Cytokinesis is the method by which a cell’s cytoplasm divides, creating a new cell.

14. The Stages of Interphase The first stage of interphase, G1
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
The Stages of Interphase
The first stage of interphase, G1
The cell is growing, carrying out normal cell functions, and preparing to replicate DNA.

15. The Second Stage of Interphase, S
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
The Second Stage of Interphase, S
The cell copies its DNA in preparation for cell division.

16. The Third Stage of Interphase, G2
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Cellular Growth
The Third Stage of Interphase, G2
The cell prepares for the division of its nucleus.

17. The Cell Cycle - a cycle of growing and dividing in eukaryotic cells
Interphase – cell grows, develops and replicates DNA, prepares for division;
3 substages:
G1 (Gap 1) – cell is growing and replicating organelles
S – synthesis – DNA replication occurs
Chromosomes – contain genetic material
Chromatin – relaxed form of DNA in nucleus
G2 (Gap 2) cell prepares for mitosis

18. Chromosome Structure

19. Chromatin

20. Mitosis cell’s nucleus (DNA) divides (4 stages) (PMAT)
Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides; result is 2 identical daughter cells

21. 9.1 Section Assessment (pg. 247 1-6)
When the cell increases in size, transportation of substances across the membrane becomes difficult. The cell is not efficient.
2. The primary stages of the cell cycle are interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
3. DNA is replicated during the S stage of interphase.

22. Diagram of cell cycle – see pg. 246
Interphase
Longest phase
Cell grows
DNA replication occurs
Mitosis
Nucleus divides
Occurs in 4 stages
Cytokinesis
Shortest phase
Cytoplasm divides

23. The large cell would not be able to maintain itself because the plasma membrane-to-cell contents ratio would be too large and diffusion and transport would be inefficient.
6. surface area = 5 um x 5 um x 6 = 150 um2
volume = 5 um x 5 um x 5 um = 125 um3
Ratio is 6:5
Result inefficient transport

24. 9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Objectives:
Describe the events of each stage of mitosis.
Explain the process of cytokinesis.
Main Idea
Eukaryotic cells reproduce by mitosis, the process of nuclear division, and cytokinesis, the process of cytoplasm division.

25. The cell’s chromatin tightens.
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
The Stages of Mitosis
Prophase
The cell’s chromatin tightens.
Sister chromatids are attached at the centromere.
Spindle fibers form in the cytoplasm.

26. The nuclear envelope seems to disappear.
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
The nuclear envelope seems to disappear.
Spindle fibers attach to the sister chromatids.
Prometaphase

27. They line up in the middle of the cell.
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Metaphase
Sister chromatids are pulled along the spindle apparatus toward the center of the cell.
They line up in the middle of the cell.

28. The microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to shorten.
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Anaphase
The microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to shorten.
The sister chromatids separate.
The chromosomes move toward the poles of the cell.

29. The chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to relax.
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Telophase
The chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to relax.
Two new nuclear membranes begin to form and the nucleoli reappear.
The spindle apparatus disassembles.

30. The 4 Stages of Mitosis http://www.johnkyrk.com/mitosis.html
Prophase – “poles form” (centrioles) “poof”
chromosomes condense; spindle forms
Metaphase – “meet in the middle”
chromosomes line up at the equator
Anaphase – “pull apart”
chromosomes move to opposite poles
Telophase – “pinch together” “two new”
nuclear envelope forms; chromosomes decondense

32. Mitosis

33. In animal cells, microfilaments constrict, or pinch, the cytoplasm.
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
In animal cells, microfilaments constrict, or pinch, the cytoplasm.
In plant cells, a new structure, called a cell plate, forms.
Visualizing the Cell Cycle

34. Plant Cell Division

35. Remember the Stages of Cell Division
I Interphase
Probably Prophase
Make Metaphase
A Anaphase
Teacher Telophase
Crazy Cytokinesis

36. Prokaryotic cells undergo binary fission- cell divides into 2 genetically identical cells
WHY?
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus.
Mitosis is division of the nucleus.

37. Binary Fission - lhs.lps.org

38. Bacterial Cell: Binary Fission
student.nu.ac.th

39. 9.2 Section Assessment (pg. 252 1-7)
To complete the cell cycle, a cell must undergo cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.

40. 2. Mitosis Prophase Nuclear membrane disintegrates;
chromosomes condense
Metaphase
Chromosomes attach to spindle and line up at the equator of cell
Anaphase
Chromosomes move apart to opposite poles
Telophase
Cell pinches together;
Chromosomes relax

41. A cell spends the most time in prophase of mitosis.
3. chromosome in prophase
sister chromatid
centromere
A cell spends the most time in prophase of mitosis.
Cytokinesis in plant cells involves forming a cell plate between the two cells. 6.
7. In a week, 128 cells would be produced.
(2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 = 7 days)

42. 9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation Objectives:
1. Summarize the role of cyclin proteins in controlling the cell cycle.
2. Explain how cancer relates to the cell cycle.
3. Describe the role of apoptosis.
4. Summarize the two types of stem cells and their potential uses.
Main Idea - The normal cell cycle is regulated by cyclin proteins.

43. 9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation Normal Cell Cycle
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Normal Cell Cycle
Different cyclin/CDK combinations signal other activities, including DNA replication, protein synthesis, and nuclear division throughout the cell cycle.

44. Quality Control Checkpoints
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Quality Control Checkpoints
The cell cycle has built-in checkpoints that monitor the cycle and can stop it if something goes wrong.
Spindle checkpoints also have been identified in mitosis.

45. Normal Cell Cycle http://cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm
cell division rate varies with type of cell
2. substances that signal cell reproduction
cyclins – proteins that regulate (start and stop) cell cycle
cyclin-dependent kinases – enzyme that binds with
cyclins during interphase and mitosis to start stages
or cell cycle, DNA replication
3. quality control checkpoints monitor cell cycle;
can stop it if error occurs

46. Abnormal Cell Cycle: Cancer
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Abnormal Cell Cycle: Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and division of cells.
Cancer cells can kill an organism by crowding out normal
cells, resulting in the loss of tissue function.

47. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Causes of Cancer
The changes that occur in the regulation of cell growth and division of cancer cells are due to mutations.
Various environmental factors can affect the occurrence of cancer cells.

48. Abnormal Cell Cycle: Cancer
cancer – uncontrolled growth and division of cells – cell cycle fails
cancer cells crowd out normal cells
cancer cells spend less time in interphase, so
they divide fast
caused by mutations in DNA and environmental factors
carcinogens – substances that cause cancer (asbestos, tobacco, secondhand smoke, UV radiation, X rays)
6. cancer genetics – requires many changes in DNA; risk increases with age, can run in families

50. Comparison of Normal and Cancerous Stomach Cells

51. Cancerous Stomach Cells
Normal Stomach Cells
Interphase 120 min.
Prophase min.
Metaphase min.
Anaphase min.
Telophase min.
Cancerous Stomach Cells
Interphase 16 min.
Prophase 15 min.
Metaphase 2 min.
Anaphase 1 min.
Telophase 3 min.

52. Apoptosis Programmed cell death
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
Cells going through apoptosis actually shrink and shrivel in a controlled process.

53. apoptosis - programmed cell death; can help protect against cancerous growths

54. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Stem Cells
Unspecialized cells that can develop into specialized cells when under the right conditions

55. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Embryonic Stem Cells
After fertilization, the resulting mass of cells divides repeatedly until there are about –150 cells. These cells have not become specialized.

56. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Cell Cycle Regulation
Adult Stem Cells
Found in various tissues in the body and might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue
Less controversial because the adult stem cells can be obtained with the consent of their donor
Cellular Reproduction

57. stem cells -unspecialized cells that can develop into specialized cells
embryonic stem cells – found in embryos; controversial due to source
adult stem cells – found in various tissues of body including newborns; less controversial because adult can give consent for removal

58. 9.3 Section Assessment pg. 257 (1-7)
Certain cyclin proteins and cyclin-dependent enzymes regulate mitosis and the cell cycle.
The cancer cell cycle is shorter. Cancer cells divide in an uncontrolled way.
Three carcinogens are cigarette smoke, UV radiation, and asbestos.

59. In apoptosis a cell undergoes programmed cell death; cancer cells divide unrestrained as long as they are supplied with essential nutrients.
Stem cells may be used to treat medical conditions and genetic defects.

60. Embryonic stem cells, found in developing embryos, can develop into many kinds of cells. Adult stem cells are found in developed tissues and might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue in which they are found.

61. If apoptosis did not occur to cells with significant DNA damage people would probably have higher rates of cancer and genetic diseases.

62. Chapter Resource Menu Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Resource Menu
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
Formative Test Questions
Chapter Assessment Questions
Standardized Test Practice
biologygmh.com
Glencoe Biology Transparencies
Image Bank
Vocabulary
Animation
Click on a hyperlink to view the corresponding lesson.

63. 1. Which is the first phase of mitosis?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
1. Which is the first phase of mitosis?
interphase
prophase
metaphase
telophase

64. During what phase do the sister
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
During what phase do the sister
chromatids line up in the middle of the cell?
interphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

65. 3. Which is not a phase of the cell cycle?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Diagnostic Questions
3. Which is not a phase of the cell cycle?
cytokinesis
interphase
apoptosis
mitosis

66. 1. Which can more efficiently supply nutrients and
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Formative Questions
1. Which can more efficiently supply nutrients and
expel waste products?
larger cells
smaller cells
cells with lower surface area to volume ratio
cells shaped like a cube

67. 2. At what stage does a cell spend most of its life?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Formative Questions
2. At what stage does a cell spend most
of its life?
cytokinesis
interphase
mitosis
synthesis

68. 3. What happens in the cell during cytokinesis?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.1 Formative Questions
3. What happens in the cell during cytokinesis?
The cell grows and carries out normal
functions.
The cell copies its DNA and forms
chromosomes.
The cell’s nucleus and nuclear material
divide.
The cell’s cytoplasm divides.

69. 4. In what stage of the cell cycle does the
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Formative Questions
4. In what stage of the cell cycle does the
cell’s replicated genetic material separate?
cytokinesis
interphase
mitosis
prophase

70. 5. Which diagram shows anaphase?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Formative Questions
5. Which diagram shows anaphase?

71. At the end of mitosis the nuclear material is
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.2 Formative Questions
6. True or False
At the end of mitosis the nuclear material is
divided and two new cells have formed.

72. What are the “key and ignition” that start
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Formative Questions
What are the “key and ignition” that start
the various activities in the cell cycle?
chromatin and chromosomes
cyclin and CDKs
microtubules and spindle fibers
protein and ribosomes

73. 8. Which of these cancer-causing substances
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Formative Questions
8. Which of these cancer-causing substances
or agents is impossible to avoid completely?
chemicals such as asbestos
food and drinks that the FDA warns may
contain carcinogens
tobacco and second-hand smoke
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun

74. What is the term for the programmed
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Formative Questions
What is the term for the programmed
death of cells that are damaged beyond repair or have harmful changes in their DNA?
apoptosis
carcinogens
cytokinesis
mitosis

75. Which cells are not locked into becoming
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
9.3 Formative Questions
Which cells are not locked into becoming
one particular kind of cell and are capable
of developing into specialized tissues?
apoptotic cells
cancer cells
prokaryotic cells
stem cells

76. 11. This cell has completed what stage of mitosis?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Assessment Questions
11. This cell has completed what stage of
mitosis?
anaphase
interphase
metaphase
telophase

77. What term is used to describe programmed cell death?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Assessment Questions
What term is used to describe
programmed cell death?
apoptosis
anaphase
necrosis
cyclins

78. 13. What is the role of cyclins in a cell?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Chapter Assessment Questions
13. What is the role of cyclins in a cell?
to control the movement of microtubules
to signal for the cell to divide
to stimulate the breakdown of the
nuclear membrane
to cause the nucleolus to disappear

79. C B A 14. Which cell has the lowest ratio of surface area to volume?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Standardized Test Practice
14. Which cell has the lowest ratio of surface
area to volume? C B A

80. 15. At what stage of interphase does the cell take
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Standardized Test Practice
15. At what stage of interphase does the cell take
inventory and make sure it is ready for the division of its nucleus? G1 S G2 M

81. Which occurs in plant cells but not animal
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Standardized Test Practice
Which occurs in plant cells but not animal
cells during the cell cycle?
formation of a cell plate
formation of microtubules
formation of a cleavage furrow at the equator
of the cell
movement of chromosomes to the poles of
the cell

82. 17. Multiple changes in DNA are required to
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Standardized Test Practice
True or False
17. Multiple changes in DNA are required to
change an abnormal cell into a cancer cell.

83. 18. Which is not a condition that can result in cancer?
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Standardized Test Practice
18. Which is not a condition that can result in cancer?
a failure in the control mechanisms that
regulate the cell cycle
a failure in the repair systems that fix
changes or damage to DNA
a failure of the spindle fibers to move
chromosomes during mitosis
mutations or changes in segments of DNA
that control protein production

84. Glencoe Biology Transparencies
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Glencoe Biology Transparencies

85. Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Image Bank

86. Section 1 Vocabulary cell cycle interphase mitosis cytokinesis
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Vocabulary
Section 1
cell cycle
interphase
mitosis
cytokinesis
chromosome
chromatin

87. Section 2 Vocabulary prophase sister chromatid centromere
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Vocabulary
Section 2
prophase
sister chromatid
centromere
spindle apparatus
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

88. Section 3 Vocabulary cyclin cyclin-dependent kinase cancer carcinogen
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Vocabulary
Section 3
cyclin
cyclin-dependent kinase
cancer
carcinogen
apoptosis
stem cell

89. Visualizing the Cell Cycle
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction
Animation
Visualizing the Cell Cycle