1. Potential of a Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) for Ionospheric and Solar Observations ABSTRACT: The Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) is a proposed large radio telescope array that will operate in the 10-240 MHz frequency range. Its 13,000 dipole antennas will be clustered in roughly 100 stations spread over a region 400 km across. Various potential sites for LOFAR in the southwestern U.S., western Australia and the Netherlands are currently being evaluated. Connected through fiber optical links, this interferometric array will be capable of digitally forming multiple simultaneous beams that can be electronically steered, will possess extreme frequency agility, and will provide a flexible system for distributed control, signal processing, monitoring, and remote operation. The array design is driven by radio astronomy goals to achieve a collecting area of one square kilometer at 15 MHz and arc-second angular resolution. At the low frequencies of operation, an adaptive phase- based calibration of the instrument will be required to compensate for ionospheric delays with extremely high precision, using astronomical radio sources observed along many simultaneous lines-of-sight to the stations. These observations will enable the application of radio tomographic techniques to construct a 3-dimensional view of ionospheric structure on fine spatial (~100 meters) and time scales (seconds). Opportunities will also exist for the potential detection and tracking of coronal mass ejections through interplanetary scintillations, and for passive radar observations using FM radio stations as transmitters of opportunity. J. E. Salah, F. D. Lind, C. J. Lonsdale, MIT Haystack Observatory G. S. Bust, T. L. Gaussiran II, Applied Research Laboratories, the University of Texas at Austin, M. P. van Haarlem, Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy, K. W. Weiler, Naval Research Laboratory

2. What is LOFAR? THE WORLD’S FIRST MAJOR DIGITAL RADIO TELESCOPE Frequency coverage: 10 - 240 MHz Array of ~ 100 stations spread over 400 km Multiple independent beams and observing programs Multi-disciplinary science: Astronomy Ionospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics Link to high-bandwidth Internet, remote control and operations

3. LOFAR Project Plans Partners: ASTRON (Netherlands) NRL MIT/Haystack Observatory Estimated costs ~ $50M – $75M (~66% ASTRON) Phase 1: Design 2001-2003 (CDR Jan 2004). Phase 2: Construction 2004-2006 (IOC Jan 2006) Site Evaluation: Texas, New Mexico, Holland, Australia

4. 400 km diameter Remote operations centers One LOFAR station, ~150 meters 100 to 150 dipoles LOFAR: Overall Layout Collecting Area = 1 km 2 @15 MHz

5. Astronomy: High Redshift Universe Epoch of Re-ionization Bursting and Transient Universe Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Physics: Ionospheric density variations and fine-scale structures Detect solar bursts and image CME emission Some Key LOFAR Science Drivers

6. Instrument type: Aperture synthesis interferometric array Low frequency range: 10-90 MHz, single dual-polarization active dipoles High frequency range: 110-240 MHz, analog-phased 16-dipole array Total number of receptors: 13365 in each frequency range Number of receptors per station: Between 81 and ~ 220 per frequency range Number of interferometric stations: Nominally 100 (up to 165). Number of digital beams at each station: Nominally 8, with phased implementation Instantaneous sky coverage at full resolution: 1 steradian at 20 MHz using 8 beams Digitized Bandwidth: 32 MHz (64 Msamples/sec per receptor) Baseline range: Between 100 m and ~ 400 km Spectral resolution: 1 kHz LOFAR Specifications

7. LOFAR: Conceptual signal path

8. (Kassim et al., 1993) Ionospheric wave effect on VLA (20 km baseline) interferometer phase at 74 MHz 0.1%  TEC  1 rad 

9. Time (minutes) Ionospheric Waves detected at the VLA (R. Perley - NRAO, private comm.)   ~ 1 

10. E-region irregularities during storm: 22 Oct 99 Manastash Ridge Radar (Lind et al., 1999)

11. Clark Lake detection of a CME 16 February 1986 - 73.8 MHz (Gopalswamy and Kundu, 1992) CME Mass Estimate: 2.7  10 12 kg

12. http://casswww.ucsd.edu/solar/forecast/index.html) These Carrington maps (with heliographic longitude and Carrington rotation number on the horizontal, and latitude on the vertical axis) show solar wind velocity and density at the distance of the Earth from the Sun on 2001/06/05 16 UT. The values to the left of the dashed line are those forecast to arrive at Earth at the dates indicated above the map. The velocity and density at the Earth are shown as traces at the bottom of the display. The maps are derived from a corotating model of the solar wind that is fit to interplanetary scintillation (IPS) velocities and g-levels received daily from STELab, Japan. The display is updated hourly. (ref: B. Jackson, M. Kojima et al.) CME Tracking using Interplanetary Scintillations (IPS) LOFAR will provide: Large Source Count (thousands) Multiple Frequencies (distance from sun) Resolution (~ 100 stations)